Dope Test

Every year over 100,000 drug tests are conducted worldwide at a cost of $30 million. The drug tests are designed to detect and deter abuse of performance-enhancing drugs by competitors. The testing procedures for drug abuse in sports are strict and at times deemed unfair by athletes. They are deemed unfair because athletes are responsible for knowing what is banned despite the fact that additions are made almost daily to the list of banned substances. The best possible solution is to avoid all drugs unless listed on the allowed substance list.

There are some athletes who will try and beat the testing. When athletes know when a drug test will occur, they can prepare for it and thereby neutralize the effects of drug testing on the use of performance enhancing drugs and/or masking agents. Year-round short-notice and no-notice testing are the most effective means to curtail the use of training drugs because they make athletes always at risk to be tested.

DRUG TESTING PROCEDURE

The drug testing procedure begins with taking a urine sample. While this sounds simple, it initiates a formal and highly regulated procedure to ensure that the urine sample that arrives at the laboratory actually comes from the athlete in question, with no opportunity to tamper with the sample. Once selected for drug testing, the athlete is notified by an official and asked to sign a form acknowledging this notification. The athlete may or may not be accompanied by an official and must attend the testing station within the designated period. The testing station is supposed to be a private, comfortable place where plenty of drinks are available. Many times it is set up inside a specially designed mobile testing unit. Independent sampling officers, whom are trained and appointed by the respective governing body, carry out the collection of urine samples. Each officer carries a time-limited identity card and a letter of authority for the event to which they are allocated.

Before giving a urine sample, the athlete is told to select two numbered bottles. After providing the sample (about 100 ml), the athlete must voluntarily complete a form. The athlete declares any drug treatment taken in the previous seven days and must check and sign that the sample has been taken and placed in the bottles correctly. The urine sample is then sent for analysis to a laboratory currently accredited by the IOC. In the event of a positive test result, the laboratory will notify the governing body of the sport, who will then notify the athlete. The rules of the governing body of the particular sport determine what happens next. The rules vary across governing bodies, sports and countries. An athlete is usually suspended while a positive result is investigated, but has the right to have a second analysis of the urine sample. This analysis may be observed directly by the athlete or by the athlete's representative. There is then a hearing, at which time the athlete's case is presented. An appeal can be made, and there have been successful appeals both in the United States and other countries.

COLLECTING A URINE SAMPLE

The testing procedure must be strictly adhered to so that all athletes receive the same treatment. Collection of the urine sample has to be observed because drug abusers may attempt to falsify the results by tampering with the samples. Volume, pH, and in some cases specific gravity and temperature of the sample are tested immediately. These simple tests check for some of the known methods of cheating the drug tests at this early stage. The urine pH is tested to detect attempts at changing the nature of the sample, which can affect the analysis of certain drugs, as well as their metabolism and clearance. Sodium bicarbonate, for example, can be taken by mouth in order to change urine pH. The pH is also tested to verify that the level of degradation, which a sample may have experienced by the time it is tested, is within acceptable limits. The specific gravity is checked for attempts to dilute the concentration of drugs, as is the case by deliberate diuretic use.

To ensure that the sample actually comes from the athlete, the testing officer must be able to see the urine flow from the athlete into the bottle. Male athletes are asked to strip to their waist and lower their shorts to their knees. Female athletes must also be observed very closely while they void a sample. This procedure can be very awkward, embarrassing, and humiliating. For a young athlete, giving a urine sample under these circumstances can be very traumatizing. Many people, regardless of age, are uncomfortable with the idea of being observed while giving a urine sample. The situation is further complicated if an athlete has been competing in an endurance sport and is dehydrated or competing at a weight category where they are reluctant to drink excess fluid.

At least 75 mL must be given under close scrutiny and the urine is split into 2 portions as "A" and "B" bottles. The athlete chooses the two coded bottles and the samples are sealed by the athlete. In most cases, only the athlete handles the urine and collection containers until sealed. The containers are sealed with tamper-proof strips, placed inside other sealed containers, wrapped in tamper-evident seals and coded. The independent official observing the sample procedure records all of the information on a document. This initiates a chain-of-custody record to be continued by anyone who handles the specimen until the urine is used up or discarded in the laboratory. The laboratory staff never knows the athlete's name, only the bottle identification number. Everyone who handles the sample must understand the importance of the chain of custody and the essential role of maintaining it. The chain of custody guarantees that the sample content is protected and that the sample tested is from the correct athlete.

The possibility of sabotage of a urine sample has been raised many times by athletes. It is for this reason that that athletes should ensure that the testing procedure is observed rigorously for their own protection. Samples should be dispatched in the appropriate containers and all paperwork completed without any errors. After this the athlete is no longer part of the process and must rely on the integrity and accuracy of the system. The sample is then taken and sent by courier, along with a chain-of-custody document, to an accredited laboratory.

IS THIS VIOLATION?

While the test protocol may seem excessive and violate certain rights of privacy and decency, there are important reasons for this protocol. There are many reports of athletes using elaborate arrangements of catheters to provide an alternative sample, bringing condoms filled with drug free urine to the testing station, and even catheterizing themselves and instilling drug free urine. If athletes go to these lengths to avoid detection, the testing protocol must be strict.
At the elite level, athletes are subject to year-round random testing. At any time, an independent sampling officer may call unannounced and request a urine sample. While this comes across straightforward on paper, in practice there are many difficulties. Frequently, athletes travel the world and finding the athlete can be difficult. After the independent sampling officer asks around to find the athlete in question, it is unlikely that the testing remains a surprise.

The proper storage of samples is important to the reliability of the tests. Once collected, the sample must be protected so that the fluid, when tested in the laboratory, reflects the composition of the sample as it left the body of the person being tested. As part of sports doping policy, urine is not refrigerated or frozen until it reaches the laboratory. In a clinical setting, great care is taken to ensure that the sample tested is as near as possible to the condition in which it left the body. This is accomplished by adding a preservative or more often by refrigerating or freezing the sample. With worldwide testing in sports, samples are sent all over the world and there can be delays in delivering them to labs.

While refrigeration or freezing of the sample is the usual practice in the clinical setting, note that this is definitely not the case in sports. The addition of chemicals to prevent bacterial growth in the urine could preserve the specimen and may be a more practical alternative. Athletes, however, regard this method with some suspicion and think that this may introduce the possibility of tampering with the sample. Current scientific evidence indicates that their fears are misplaced. Urine contains thousands of bacteria from many different species.

This is even more the case for a sexually active female. Urine collected from a female athlete will contain skin cells and microorganisms from the intestine flushed to the vaginal area by sweat. Many bacteria are ubiquitous and survive even in tap-water plumbing; if the water were used to wash any of the sample containers, other microorganisms could be added to the sample. Bacteria, in a container to which urine is added, will flourish in such a medium that is infinitely richer in nutrients than the water in which they have survived. Many constituents of urine support the growth of such bacteria, and metabolism presents a serious problem in drug testing because of the risk of falsifying doping test results. In this regard, urine contains several steroids that are utilized by bacterial enzymes that can interconvert endogenous steroids to the extent of producing testosterone (T) in the urine. Because of the steroid concentrations in the urine, even a low conversion rate of steroids to T will produce a level of T sufficient to distort the test result. So athletes should be more concerned if officials don't add something to the urine sample and not the other way around.Banned Drug List

how to Reduce Belly

If you are looking for ways on how to reduce belly fat and those sit-ups you have been doing are not working, you will receive the benefits of reading my article. With so many methods available online and all of the false information out there, you may be confused on what to look for and who to get your information from, but rest assured, the article that I have written for you may answer many of the problems you are currently experiencing.

If you did not know, excessive fat in your stomach area may be caused from cardiovascular problems, an over-indulgence in alcohols, a poor diet, slothfulness (procrastination), as well as other things that cause a buildup in the fat cells in your body. The only way to effectively kill your belly fat is to make a complete change in the way you live your life, which includes the way you eat, think, drink, and exercise:

1. A good way of knowing how to reduce belly fat is to eat a diet that cuts down on the calorie intake of your body. When you consume products that are low in saturated fats, as well as meats that are very lean, you will increase the chances of your belly fat disappearing from your stomach.

A big mistake that many people make is in thinking that not eating will solve their weight problems. However, if you do not put food in your system, you will never have the energy to do anything, including exercise, which will make you even fatter than you previously were (i.e. laziness). The human body doesn't function right without a good amount of nutrients, so if your body is insufficient in foods, your metabolism will slow down exceedingly to create a balance for the lack of food in your diet, which will create more weight problems for you once you try to eat again (if you starved yourself).

2. Another way to eliminate stomach fat is to reduce the servings of food that you consume each day, and like I said above, be sure to exercise daily (or 3-4 times a week, at least). With small portions, you can still satisfy your bodily hunger but at the same time, you will keep your metabolism at an all-time high which will make it easier for your body to burn fat.

By the way, another way of knowing how to reduce belly fat is to stop eating Doritos and potato chips and replace that junk food with carrots, fruits, vegetables, whole grains, brown rice, and even nuts.

3. As you know, having fat deposits in your stomach will make you less attractive, this may kill your confidence and make you feel very ugly, bloated, and maybe even disgusting. Instead of always driving everywhere, it may be a good thing for you to take a walk (or run) to the store as long as it's not too far from your house, as this will teach you to exercise and be more mobile (bodily, that is).

4. Also, it is good to do sit-ups, but sit-ups and crunches alone will not solve your problem if you don't balance the exercise with a proper diet. Sit-ups will make your stomach muscles more toned, and they can also be used to help you lose fat in your waist area as well. The experts often say that weight loss is 50% diet and 50% exercise, so I would recommend that you put an equal amount of time in both areas if you want sufficient results.

5. Be sure to leave out products that are high in sugar, as sugar is one of the main causes in fat not only in the belly and waist region, but also in all areas of fat in the body as well. Be sure to replace the soda that you may be drinking with at least 6-8 glasses of water daily, or possibly eliminate soda altogether from your diet. Also, replace the sugar with protein and fiber-rich foods, and you will be well on your way to a slim stomach.

6. Engaging in cardio and abdominal exercises (besides sit-ups) is another way you can learn how to reduce belly fat, as this combination will also improve your muscle mass when you're getting enough protein in your system. By the way, aerobics is an excellent way to cut down on the calorie intake of your body.

7. Last but not least, be sure to exercise greater control of your thoughts and emotions, as high levels of stress hormones can increase the fat that your stomach stores. When you experience chronic stress, your body pumps these kinds of hormones into your system which causes the fat in your waist area (or midsection) to have a major increase after while. Meditation, soothing music, and taking deep breaths all contribute to eliminating belly fat when used in conjunction with the tips listed above.

8. Try to stay away from salty foods, as salt is known for absorbing water. Only consume products that are either low or free of salt contents, as your body will hold less water and give you a leaner body frame when it does not have all that salt in it.

9. Last but not least: If you have the discipline, I'd recommend that you switch to a diet that is completely composed of fresh fruits, raw vegetables, and anything organic. Avoid products that are from dairy, meat, many types of fish, and once again, junk foods!

However, you can eat the recommended foods (above) however much you want without gaining "bad" weight, which is good for those who want a sexier body.

Want to learn How to Reduce Belly Fat in record-timing? If so, you have found the right resource, so don't wait until tomorrow, eliminate your stomach fat today!

What is Calisthenics

Calisthenics are a form of dynamic exercise consisting of a variety of simple, often rhythmical, movements, generally using minimal equipment or apparatus. They are intended to increase body strength and flexibility with movements such as bending, jumping, swinging, twisting or kicking, using only one's body weight for resistance. They are usually conducted in concert with stretches. Calisthenics when performed vigorously and with variety can benefit both muscular and cardiovascular fitness, in addition to improving psychomotor skills such as balance, agility and coordination. it is also a very effective way of toning the hips, thighs and waist.

Groups such as sports teams and military units often perform leader-directed group calisthenics as a form of synchronized physical training (often including a customized "call and response" routine), in order to increase group cohesion and discipline. Calisthenics are also popular as a component of physical education in primary and secondary schools over much of the globe.

History

The history of calisthenics is linked to Greco-Roman gymnastics. Calisthenics originated in ancient Greece, where it was mentioned in a Persian scout report on Spartan warriors before the Battle of Thermopylae, with the Persians interpreting the odd synchronized movements as a form of dance, and thus a sign of weakness^{[citation needed]}.

Disciples of Friedrich Ludwig Jahn brought their version of gymnastics to the United States, while Catherine Beecher and Dio Lewis set up physical education programs for women in the 19th Century.^[3] Organized systems of calisthenics in America took a back seat to competitive sports after the Battle of the Systems, when the states mandated physical education systems^{[citation needed]}.

[edit] Common exercises

A standard chin-up, palms facing chest, using open grip

In addition to the various stretches, some of the more common calisthenic exercises include:

• Lunges

Performed by bringing one leg forward and almost kneeling on the back leg. Once the front leg creates a perfect 90 degree angle you stand up and alternate legs. Keeping your back straight and chest out is important for proper form. There are many variations for lunges.

• Jumping jacks

Performed by jumping to a position with the legs spread wide and the hands touching overhead and then returning to a position with the feet together and the arms at the sides.

• Sit-ups

Performed by lying down with the back on the floor, knees bent, and bottoms of feet against the floor. The shoulders are then lifted off the floor by tightening abdominal muscles and bringing the chest closer to the knees. The final movement is to lower the back to the floor with a smooth movement. This trains the abdominal muscles.

A US Marine performs a pull-up, a common calisthenic exercise.

• Crunches

Like the sit-up, except instead of bringing the whole torso area closer to the knees, only a concentrated but shorter movement of the abdominals is performed. Shoulder blades are lifted off the floor, and abdominals tightened.

• Push-ups

Performed face down on the floor, palms against floor under the shoulders, toes curled upwards against the floor. The arms are used to lift the body while maintaining a straight line from head to heel. The arms of the subject should go from fully extended in the high position to nearly fully flexed in the low position, while the subject makes sure to avoid resting on the floor. Resting is only done in the high position of the exercise. Chest, shoulders, and triceps are trained with this exercise.

• Pull-ups

An overhead bar (sometimes called a chin-up bar) is grasped using a shoulder-width overhand (palms facing forward) grip. The subject lifts their body up, chin level with the bar, and keeping the back straight throughout. The bar remains in front of the subject at all times. The subject then slowly returns to starting position in a slow controlled manner. This primarily trains the lats or upper back muscles, as well as the forearms. An underhand grip variation or chin-up trains both the back and biceps.

• Squats

Standing with feet shoulder width apart, the subject squats down as far as possible, bringing the arms forward parallel to the floor. The subject then returns to standing position. Squats train the quadriceps, hamstrings, calves, and gluteals.

• Calf-raises

Standing on a platform with an edge where the heels can hang (e.g. a curb), lift the body on the balls of the feet. The subject then slowly returns to starting position. This trains the gastrocnemius. A seated calf-raise trains the soleus.

Animation of a full push-up

• Dips

Done between parallel bars or facing either direction of trapezoid bars found in some gyms. Feet are crossed with either foot in front and the body is lowered until the elbows are in line with the shoulders. The subject then pushes up until the arms are fully extended, but without locking the elbows. Dips focus primarily on the chest, triceps, and deltoids.

• Flutter kick

Lying on your back, hands in fists under buttocks, move feet up and down near the ground

Yoga and Health

Yoga has been practiced for more than 5,000 years, and currently, close to 11 million Americans are enjoying its health benefits. Yoga can hardly be called a trend.

Most Westernized yoga classes focus on learning physical poses, which are called asanas. They also usually include some form of breathing technique and possibly a meditation technique as well. Some yoga classes are designed purely for relaxation. But there are styles of yoga that teach you how to move your body in new ways. Choosing one of these styles offers the greatest health benefits by enabling you to develop your flexibility, strength, and balance.

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Yoga and Flexibility

When some people think of yoga, they imagine having to stretch like a gymnast. That makes them worry that they're too old, unfit, or "tight" to do yoga. The truth is you're never too old to improve flexibility.

The series of yoga poses called asanas work by safely stretching your muscles. This releases the lactic acid that builds up with muscle use and causes stiffness, tension, pain, and fatigue. In addition, yoga increases the range of motion in joints. It may also increase lubrication in the joints. The outcome is a sense of ease and fluidity throughout your body.

Yoga stretches not only your muscles but all of the soft tissues of your body. That includes ligaments, tendons, and the fascia sheath that surrounds your muscles. And no matter your level of yoga, you most likely will see benefits in a very short period of time. In one study, participants had up to 35% improvement in flexibility after only eight weeks of yoga. The greatest gains were in shoulder and trunk flexibility.

Yoga and Strength

Some styles of yoga, such as ashtanga and power yoga, are more vigorous than others. Practicing one of these styles will help you improve muscle tone.

But even less vigorous styles of yoga, such as Iyengar or hatha, which focuses on less movement and more precise alignment in poses, can provide strength and endurance benefits.

Many of the poses, such as downward dog, upward dog, and the plank pose, build upper-body strength. This becomes crucial as people age. The standing poses, especially if you hold them for several long breaths, build strength in your hamstrings, quadriceps, and abdominal muscles. Poses that strengthen the lower back include upward dog and the chair pose. When practiced correctly, nearly all poses build core strength in the deep abdominal muscles.

Yoga Can Help Posture

With increased flexibility and strength comes better posture. Most standing and sitting poses develop core strength. That's because you're counting on your deep abdominals to support and maintain each pose. With a stronger core, you're more likely to sit and stand "tall." Another benefit of yoga is the increased body awareness. This heightened awareness tells you more quickly when you're slouching or slumping so you can adjust your posture.

Great Compare of the World

Moin Akhtar (Urdu: معین اختر, also spelled as, Moeen Akhtar; 24 December 1950 – 22 April 2011) was a Pakistani television, film and stage actor, as well as a comedian, impersonator, and a host. He was also a play writer, singer, film director and a producer.

Akhtar was born in Karachi to Urdu speaking parents migrated from Mumbai India , was highly dynamic and versatile performer, he made his debut for television on 6 September 1966, in a variety show held on PTV to celebrate the first defense day of Pakistan‎. Since then, he has performed several roles in TV plays/shows, later making a team with Anwar Maqsood and Bushra Ansari.

He was beloved for providing humor for people of all ages, and with an etiquette that remains unmatched. His attempts to avoid vulgarity in his humor rendered him a favorite amongst family audiences. Akhtar was fluent in several languages, including English, Bengali, Sindhi, Punjabi, Memon, Pashto, Gujarati and Urdu. He performed not only in Pakistan but played in several stage shows like Bakra Qiston Pe and Buddha Ghar Pe Hai with Umer Sharif in India too.

Moin Akhtar rose to the national spotlight and gathered critical acclaim for his performance in the drama Rosy /Rozy (روذی), in which he played the role of a female TV artist. Rozy was an Urdu adaptation of Hollywood movie Tootsie starring Dustin Hoffman. Moreover, in a talk-show namely Loose Talk, which began in 2005 on ARY Digital, he appeared as a different character in each and every of over 400 episodes interviewed by Anwar Maqsood, the writer and the host of the program. Akhter also briefly hosted the game show Kya Aap Banaingay Crorepati?, the Pakistani version of Who Wants to be a Millionaire?.

He was awarded honorary citizenship of Dallas in 1996 for his achievements. He is also listed among Amazing Pakistanis of all time

Selected television serials

• Rozi
• Dollar Man
• Makaan No 47
• Half Plate
• Family-93
• Eid Train
• Bandar Road Se Keamari
• Such Much
• Aangan Tehra
• Baby
• Rafta Rafta

Host

He was the host of the show in which

• King Husain of Jordan was invited.
• The Prime minister of Gambia, Dawoodi-Al-Joza, was invited.
• President Zia-ul-Haq was invited.
• Prime Minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto was invited.
• President General Yahya Khan was invited.
• President Ghulam Ishaq Khan was invited.
• President Pervez Musharaf was invited and he mimicked the president in his presence.
• Moin Akhter Show
• Lagay raho Moin Bhai

Television shows

• Fifty Fifty (comedy serial from PTV)
• Show Sha
• Showtime
• Studio Dhhaai (Studio 2.5)
• Studio Pone Teen (Studio 2.75)
• Loose Talk (From ARY Digital)

Songs and albums

Album - Tera Dil Bhi Yun Hi Tadpe

• "Chhorr Ke Jaane Wale"
• "Choat Jigar Pe Khai Hai"
• "Ro-Ro Ke De Raha Hai"
• "Tera Dil Bhi Yun Hi Tadpe"
• "Dard Hi Sirf Dil Ko Mila"
• "Dil Ro Raha Hai"
• "Hoten Hai Bewafa"

Death

He died on 22 April 2011 at about 6:15pm in Karachi after suffering from a heart attack. He is survived by his wife, three daughters and two sons. The funeral prayers of Moin Akhtar were offered in Tauheed Mosque near his residence. Thousands of people attended the funeral prayer which was led by Junaid Jamshed

History Of Horse

Asia

Although horses were domesticated at different times by people in different parts of the world, the oldest evidence of humans taming horses comes from Asia. Prehistoric horse cultures have been found in what is now the Southern Ukraine, Caucasus and Central Asia. These people were nomads, wandering the broad, grassy steppes, herding cattle, sheep or horses and hunting wild animals.

They practically lived on horseback, using the horse for food, mainly in the form of mare's milk, as well as transportation. Horses were so important that they were often buried with tribal chiefs in elaborate tombs below ground.

In the more developed civilisations of Persia, China and Japan, the horse was valuable military asset and carried messengers to all points of the kingdoms. Horses were celebrated in paintings, poetry, pottery and legend. Rustum, the Persian hero, rode his magic horse Rakish in battle and on adventures. Pottery horses of the T'ang Dynasty are supreme examples of Chinese art.

The horse made empires possible. Muslim warriors on horseback took control of lands from Persia to Spain in the 700's. Jengiz Khan and his mounted Mongol warriors conquered the largest empire in human history, from China to the shores of the eastern Mediterranean in the 12th Century. The horse enabled rulers to administer their far-flung territories by using couriers to send messages and instructions to local governors. The style of riding introduced into the Middle East by the warriors of the Prophet spread through Europe and eventually formed the basis for the style of riding now known as English saddle or hunt seat.

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Africa

In northern Africa, Arab and Barb horses provided the mounts for the armies that created great kingdoms in Mali, Niger and Sudan. The ruler of Timbuktu was said to have had 3000 horseman in his troop and would purchase the best ones from each caravan that passed by. The sub-tropical and tropical climates of central and western Africa make it almost impossible to raise horses locally.

The presence of disease-carrying insects, especially the tsetse fly, and another factor limiting the ability of horses to survive in Africa. Horses were scarce for other reasons: Africans traditionally herded cattle, sheep and goats on foot, and the African soil was too poor for large-scale farming. All these factors combined to leave little need for horses in daily life. As a result, their use was limited to the military and to the ruling classes, who enjoyed using horses in elaborate displays of wealth, such as the durbar in northern Nigeria.

South of the jungle formed by the great Congo Basin, which divides Africa from East to West, the horse was unknown until Dutch and English settlers arrived. They used horses in the same way in Europe, for farming, herding and travel. The native Africans had no need for the horse in farming and herding, but they used horses occasionally for transportation. As a result, the horse did not play an important role in the economy or society of southern Africa, unlike elsewhere in the world.

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Europe

Modern Europe has its origins in the kingdoms of the Middle Ages, which have their origins in the feudal system, which was made possible by the horse. More exactly, feudalism was made possible by the introduction of the stirrup into Europe in the 800's. The stirrup turned a man on horseback into a formidable fighting unit. The mounted knight in armour was the mainstay of the medieval army. The system of land ownership required to support the knight developed into a highly complex social organisation. The feudal kingdoms eventually evolved into the nations of Europe, as we know them today.

Stirrups helped not only the knight, but also the merchant, the traveller and the courier of the king. A rider with stirrups is much more secure than a rider without them and the result was to vastly increase the use of the horse for riding.

In addition to the stirrup, the shoulder collar, another imported piece of equipment, helped the horse to become important in European social and economic development. During the Roman Empire, long before the Middle Ages, horses were used in almost exclusively for war or sport. They did not usually pull ploughs or carts because the Roman harnesses were not efficient. The shoulder collar enabled the horses to pull ploughs and wagons. Stronger and faster than the ox, the horse became much more useful to the peasant and the merchant.

Until the invention of the internal combustion engine, the horse was Europe's most important source of energy. The word 'Horsepower' is still used today to measure engines.

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North America

It is hard to imagine the history of North America without horses, yet horses had vanished from the Western Hemisphere many thousands of years before the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492. Remains of ancient bones found in parts of the United States indicate that horses may have been hunted by humans, but by the time the Europeans began to explore the continent, the horse was gone. It was not even a memory among the native tribes.

The Spanish conquistadores brought horses back into North America in the early 1500's. Although vastly outnumbered, the Spanish were able to conquer the Aztec empire in Mexico as well as most what is now the western United States because the native populations had never seen horses and usually ran away in terror from their first sight of these strange animals.

Exploration and settlement of the vast North American continent would have been much more difficult, if not impossible, without horses. Although oxen pulled the pioneers' wagons west into the prairies, they are slower than horses and are not as useful. Without horses, for example, there would have been no Pony Express to deliver the mail, no cowboys to round up cattle and no stagecoaches to carry people from town to town. The horse pulled the farmer's plough, carried the cavalry soldier in battle and brought the doctor his patients.

The Western style of riding developed directly from the medieval Spanish saddles, and the cowboy's seat, with long stirrups and straight leg, is the same seat used by a knight in armour. The universal image of the West is the cowboy and his horse.

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South America

The Spanish conquistadors brought horses to South America in the 1500's The native people had never before seen these large creatures and they were at first terrified at the sight of men on horseback. As a result, mounted soldiers were able to conquer the native empires and establish Spanish rule over much of the continent. Afterwards, horses continued to be imported by Spanish and Portuguese colonists for use in farming, ranching and transportation, just as they were used in Europe.

In South America today, horses remain valuable for ranching on the great cattle-raising estancias of Argentina and on the ranchos of Colombia, Venezuela, Bolivia, Paraguay, Uruguay and northern Brazil. The gaucho on the his pony is a symbol of the pampa, the South American plain, just as the cowboy is a symbol of the open range in the western United States. On the pampas, the horses are not stabled or corralled but range free in herds called remudas, which are led by a dominant mare. The mare is trained to follow the gaucho on his rounds, and when the gaucho's horse tires, he simply selects a fresh mount from the remuda.

Along with the use of horses in herding, the European settlers brought their traditions of horse-based sports. Polo and racing remain popular today in many countries of South America. The South American breeds, developed from fine horses bred on the Iberian Peninsula since Roman times, are prized for their beauty and stamina.

Animal with three eyes

Tuatara heaven.

Tuataras survived because no predators invaded New Zealand. Terrestrial mammals failed to cross the Tasman Ocean, which separated New Zealand from Australia by opening about 90 million years ago. (See tectonics section). Tuataras are unusual reptiles, since they like cool weather. They do not survive well over 25 degrees centigrade but can live below 5 degrees, by hibernating in burrows. New Zealand climate was just right.

Then humans arrived and introduced kiore, dogs, ferrets, pigs and cats...

Tuatara now only lives on predator-free outlying islands, but can be seen on the mainland, in "protective custody." The best place to find them is at the Invercargill Museum where a small colony of live reptiles lives in a small bush setting, behind glass. The tuataras are reproducing, which is good evidence they are enjoying the Invercargill environment (although they get a bit of help from oxytocin injections).

Photography by John Wattie.

Tuataras do not live in lovely forest like this any more.
The Maori rat (Kiore) made it impossible to live on the mainland.
This whole picture is a cheat - a captive Tuatara melded with a misty, Whirinaki Forest background.
Nature photographers are not supposed to do that - unless they are honest and let you know it happened.
So, this is how Tuatara would have looked, before humans messed up the mainland environment.

Two Species

Genetic testing has shown there are two species of tuatara: Sphenodon Punctatus and S. Guntheri.
There are also DNA subspecies, but lets not get involved with all that.

Burrows

Tuataras live separate from each other in well defended burrows. Sea-birds: petrels, prions and shearwaters, sometimes share tunnels with the reptiles. This is not safe for the birds, for wily Tuataras are partial to eggs and chickens in spring time.
Perhaps Tuatara tells the birds stories on rainy nights about him being their ancient ancestor and having every right to live with them.

Primitive reptile on the line to dinosaurs and birds.

Tuatara's relatives were the beak headed reptiles (Rhinocephalia). These spread all around the world 200 million years ago, but died out 100 million years ago. Only Tuatara survived to become a "living fossil". Tuatara (Sphenodon) is often used by zoologists as an example of about as basic a reptile as they can find. "The diapsid reptile Sphenodon is the most unspecialised living amniote." The evolution of both reptiles and birds can be described starting from tuatara anatomy. This does NOT mean tuatara is the common precursor, just that comparative anatomical diagrams of reptiles and birds can start conveniently with this animal. The evolution diagrams showing a Sphenodon type of primitive reptile changing into a bird are the work of Svend Palm. Click on the picture to reach his fascinating web site dealing in considerable detail with evolution of reptiles and birds and the origin of flight.

Svend Palm's diagrams converted to a changing GIF file.

Teeth

Tuataras emerge from burrows, often at night, to eat any animal they can: mostly insects such as wetas, also worms, slugs and millipedes. Tuataras are too lazy to chase their prey. They just sit and if anything small is silly enough to pass by, Tuatara suddenly snaps it up. They have a powerful bite and can hold on for long periods. Adult tuataras also enjoy eating young tuatara. The children emerge in daylight, when adults are often sleeping, which saves them from a cannibal death. Lower teeth fit into a groove between two rows of upper teeth. The teeth are actually made of bone and fastened to the outer surface of the jaw bone. Snakes' teeth are like this too (acrodont). Old tuataras are often edentulous and just eat with their jaw bones, like old people who have lost their false teeth. Loss of teeth is very serious for carnivores, like lions and is often a death sentence. Man-eating tigers in India have often lost teeth and cannot kill their faster, normal prey any more. When eating slugs, teeth are not essential and so old Tuataras get by very well. Lizards have plurodont teeth, supported by a shelf of bone. This is one of the reasons tuataras are not lizards. Crocodiles have thecodont teeth, which are set in the bone. Humans also have thecodont teeth sitting in sockets.

Tuatara: mouth Tuatara in 3D: red/cyan anaglyph: Click for bigger version

Reproduction

The female buries up to 19 soft shell eggs in soil, but not often.
Life is slow in the cold blooded reptile world and egg laying occurs about once per 4 years.
Even laying in soft soil is a contested activity, for other females may dig up the eggs to lay their own. No interest is taken in the eggs, which are left to hatch by themselves just over a year later.

Males are bigger than females and have bigger spines down their backs. "Tuatara" apparently means "old spiny back" in Maori. Males can mate every year. Females taking 4 years is a bit frustrating for them. So males fight vigorously over receptive females, and often show combat scars. The winning male inflates his throat and raises his spines while slowly circling the lady tuatara, lifting his body up and down in a comical fashion with each step. Eventually the girl nods to indicate she is impressed and he is acceptable for father of her eggs. The juveniles mature slowly over 9 years (in captivity) to 20 years (in the wild). Tuataras live for 60 to 100 years.
These ancient reptiles are like modern humans in life span and aggression
- but will humans last over one hundred million years?

Gender

The sex of Tuataras is decided by soil temperature around the eggs.
Warm soil causes males, cool soil leads to females.
Other reptiles show this peculiarity too (crocodiles, turtles).
Most other animals have gender decided by X and y chromosomes.

Third eye

Tuataras have three eyes, but the third eye is only tiny. It grows on top of the head, under the skin in adults, and has a retina with nerve connection to the pineal. The pineal gland, in the middle of the brain, produces melatonin; which influences sleep and hibernation. The amount of light falling on the third eye may trigger these biological cycles. There is a tiny extra hole in the skull for the third eye: called the parietal foramen (although it is in the middle). We will review the big temporal foramina shortly, since they are not eye sockets.

Some scientists say the third eye has no function at all.

Tuataras hibernate - or at least are dormant in their burrows in winter. On a warm winter day, they will come out to enjoy the sun. This seems more a function of temperature than of light (since they live underground). Maybe the third eye has little to do with hibernation after all

Use of mouse in computer

Your computers mouse is a pointing device that is used in a windows operating system environment. It is a device designed to be held in a single hand and usually consists or two or more buttons, plus one or more wheels. When you move the mouse on its mat, it'll typically result in a cursor on your screen moving.

Your computer mouse is used primarily for clicking, dragging, copying and executing programs. With a combination of clicks and button pressing on your keyboard, your able to perform specific tasks such as selecting, dragging and dropping, rollover, page up & down and a whole host of other actions.

The original mouse was the mechanical ball; it has since been replaced with the latest optimal version. These newest additions are both lighter in weight when compared to the old mechanical ball mouse. They are also far more precise. These types of mouses can easily be picked up at any online computer store. Today, the wireless mouse is the most popular because of the most obvious advantages of easier handling, less clutter and competitive pricing.

The Different Types of Computer Mouses

There are a number of different mouse types such as the laser, wireless, ball and optical mouse. It is also possible to categorise these different mouses on the basis of their DPI resolution. Wireless mouses use Bluetooth, infrared or radio signals whereas the wired solutions use a USB or PS/2 connector.

Computer Mouse Accessories:

In order for you to use a mechanical mouse optimally, you'll need a mouse pad. However, the laser and optical mouses are capable of functioning without these pads

James Bond

James Bond 007 is a fictional character created in 1953 by writer Ian Fleming, who featured him in twelve novels and two short story collections. The fictional British Secret Intelligence Service agent has also been used in the longest running and most financially successful English-language film franchise to date, starting in 1962 with Dr. No

After Fleming's death in 1964, subsequent James Bond novels were written by Kingsley Amis, John Gardner, Raymond Benson, Sebastian Faulks and Jeffery Deaver. Moreover, Christopher Wood novelised two screenplays, Charlie Higson wrote a series on a young James Bond while other writers have authored unofficial versions of the character.

There have been 22 films in the EON Productions series to date, the most recent of which, Quantum of Solace, was released on 31 October 2008 (UK). In addition there has been an American television adaptation and two independent feature productions. Apart from movies and television, James Bond has also been adapted for many other media, including radio plays, comic strips and video games.

The EON Productions films are generally termed as "official", by fans of the series, originating with the purchase of the James Bond film rights by producer Harry Saltzman in the early 1960s.

Creation and inspiration

Basic Bond coat of arms with motto

Commander Sir James Bond, (KCMG, RNVR) is an officer of the British Secret Intelligence Service (SIS; commonly known as MI6). He was created in January 1952 by British journalist Ian Fleming while on holiday at his Jamaican estate, Goldeneye. The hero was named after the American ornithologist James Bond, a Caribbean bird expert and author of the definitive field guide book Birds of the West Indies. Fleming, a keen birdwatcher, had a copy of Bond's field guide at Goldeneye. Of the name, Fleming once said in a Reader's Digest interview, "I wanted the simplest, dullest, plainest-sounding name I could find, 'James Bond' was much better than something more interesting, like 'Peregrine Carruthers.' Exotic things would happen to and around him, but he would be a neutral figure — an anonymous, blunt instrument wielded by a government department."

Nevertheless, news sources speculated about real spies or other covert agents after whom James Bond might have been modelled or named, such as Sidney Reilly or William Stephenson, best-known by his wartime intelligence codename of Intrepid. Although they are similar to Bond, Fleming confirmed none as the source figure, nor did Ian Fleming Publications nor any of Fleming's biographers, such as John Pearson or Andrew Lycett. Historian Keith Jeffery speculates in his authorized history of MI6, that Bond may be modeled on Fleming's close friend, Bill "Biffy" Dunderdale, a MI6 agent whose sophisticated persona and penchant for pretty women and fast cars closely matches that of Bond.

James Bond's parents are Andrew Bond, from village of Glencoe (Argyll, Scotland), and Monique Delacroix, from Yverdon (Vaud, Switzerland). Their nationalities were established in On Her Majesty's Secret Service. Fleming emphasised Bond's Scottish heritage in admiration of Sean Connery's cinematic portrayal, whereas Bond's mother is named after a Swiss fiancée of Fleming's. A planned, but unwritten, novel would have portrayed Bond's mother as a Scot. Ian Fleming was a member of a prominent Scottish banking family.^[13] Although John Pearson's fictional biography of Bond gives him a birth date on 11 November (Armistice Day) 1920, the books themselves are inconsistent on the matter. In Casino Royale, he is said to have bought a car in 1933 and to have been an experienced gambler before World War II. Two books later, in Moonraker, he is said to be in his mid-thirties; the setting of this book can be no earlier than 1954 as it refers to the South Goodwin Lightship, which was lost in that year. There is a further reference to Bond's age in You Only Live Twice, when Tanaka tells him he was born in the Year of the Rat (1924/25 or 1912/13). The books were written over a 12-year period during which Bond's age, when mentioned, thus varies, but is usually around 40. In the novel On Her Majesty's Secret Service, Bond's family motto is found to be Orbis non sufficit ("The world is not enough"). The novel also states that the family that used this motto may not necessarily be the same Bond family from which James Bond came.

Hoagy Carmichael—another James Bond visual model.

After completing the manuscript for Casino Royale, Fleming allowed his friend (and later editor) William Plomer to read it. Plomer liked it and submitted it to Jonathan Cape, who did not like it as much. Cape finally published it in 1953 on the recommendation of Fleming's older brother Peter, an established travel writer.

Most researchers agree that James Bond is a romanticised version of Ian Fleming, himself a jet-setting womaniser. Both Fleming and Bond attended the same schools, preferred the same foods (scrambled eggs and coffee), maintained the same habits (drinking, smoking, wearing short-sleeve shirts), shared the same notions of the perfect woman in looks and style, and had similar naval career paths (both rising to the rank of naval Commander). They also shared similar height, hairstyle, and eye colour. Some suggest that Bond's suave and sophisticated persona is based on that of a young Hoagy Carmichael. In Casino Royale, Vesper Lynd remarks, "Bond reminds me rather of Hoagy Carmichael, but there is something cold and ruthless." Likewise, in Moonraker, Special Branch Officer Gala Brand thinks that Bond is "certainly good-looking . . . Rather like Hoagy Carmichael in a way. That black hair falling down over the right eyebrow. Much the same bones. But there was something a bit cruel in the mouth, and the eyes were cold."

Fleming did admit to being partly inspired by a story recounted to him which took place during his service in the Naval Intelligence Division of the Admiralty. The incident is depicted in Casino Royale, when Ralph Izzard finds himself involved in a card game, playing poker against covert Nazi intelligence agents at a casino in Pernambuco, Brazil.

Novels and related works

In February 1952, Ian Fleming began writing his first James Bond novel. At the time, Fleming was the foreign manager for Kemsley Newspapers, owners of The Daily Express in London. Upon accepting the job, Fleming asked for two months' yearly vacation in his contract—time spent writing in Jamaica. Between 1953 and his death in 1964, Fleming published twelve novels and one short-story collection (a second collection was published posthumously). Later, continuation novels were written by Kingsley Amis (as Robert Markham), John Gardner, Charlie Higson, and Raymond Benson, who was the first American author of James Bond. The Young Bond series of novels was begun in 2005, by Charlie Higson.

In July 2007, it was announced that Sebastian Faulks has been commissioned to write a new Bond novel to commemorate Fleming's 100th Birthday. The book — titled Devil May Care – was published on 27 May 2008.

The EON films

In the late 1950s, EON Productions guaranteed the film adaptation rights for every 007 novel except for Casino Royale (those rights were recovered in 1999). In 1962, the first adaptation Dr. No was made, which featured Sean Connery as 007. Connery starred in six more films after his initial portrayal (including 1983's Never Say Never Again, which was not part of the EON series). George Lazenby replaced Connery (for one film) before the latter's last EON film Diamonds Are Forever, after which the part was played by Roger Moore (for seven films), Timothy Dalton (for two films), Pierce Brosnan (for four films) and Daniel Craig (two films to 2008). As of 2008, there have been 22 films in the EON series. The 21st film, Casino Royale, with Daniel Craig as James Bond, premiered on 14 November 2006, with the film going on general release in Asia and the Middle East the following day. Notably, it is the first Bond film to have been released in China. The second James Bond film to feature Craig is Quantum of Solace, which gets its title from a short story of the same name by Ian Fleming (For Your Eyes Only, 1960), but shares no similarities with the plot.

In April 2010, EON Productions suspended development of Bond 23 indefinitely due to MGM's crippling debt and uncertain future. Prior to this suspension, Craig was expected to return to the franchise for a third time. On 11 January 2011, MGM sent out a press releasing announcing the 23rd Bond film, starring Daniel Craig, will be released on 9 November 2012. The press release reveals that "Sam Mendes [is] directing [the] screenplay written by Neal Purvis, Robert Wade and John Logan."

The film series has grossed over $4 billion (£2 billion) (nearly $11 billion when adjusted for inflation) worldwide, making it the highest grossing film series ever. The 22nd and newest movie in the series, Quantum of Solace, was released in the UK on 31 October 2008. As of 9 November 2008, global box office totals for Quantum of Solace were almost $161 million (£103 million), placing the Bond series ahead of the Harry Potter film series even when not adjusting for inflation

Use Of Elephant in War

Persians used war elephants at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. The battle raged between king Alexander the Great of Macedon and king Darius III of Persia. The Persians had 15 Indian-trained war elephants, which were placed at the centre of the Persian line, and they made such an impression on the Macedonian troops that Alexander felt the need to sacrifice to the God of Fear the night before the battle. Despite this the Persians lost the battle, relinquishing the Achaemenid Persian empire to Alexander. Elephants were later used by the Sassanids under a special chief, known as the Zend−hapet, or "Commander of the Indians," as they were from India.

History

Under the Achaemenids

The Persians are known to have used fifteen war elephants at Gaugamela, but some people^{[citation needed]} claim that they had been used previously in the Greek campaign of king Xerxes I of Persia, and even further back at the time of Darius the Great at the Indus, the Danube and against the Scythians in 512BC. Neither Xenophon nor Herodotus mention war elephants in their accounts of these earlier campaigns.

Under the Sassanids

Julian's campaign

Indian styled elephant with howdah

In 363 AD Julian the Apostate marshaled an army of 90,000 Roman troops to invade the Sassanid Territory with the intention of ravaging the Imperial capital of Ctesiphon. The Persian Shah, Shapur II, was astute enough a tactician to realize his soldiers' only chance of challenging the well-trained and better-equipped Romans was a clandestine attack. While the Romans were encamped outside the walls of the capital, the Persians launched a surprise assault onto the unsuspecting army leading with a force of heavy infantry, cataphracts and elephants. Caught unaware, the Roman soldiers fought valiantly but eventually ended up losing the battle.

During the melee, Julian foolishly charged into the conflict without his armour and was injured by an arrow. Although initially surviving, he later succumbed to the injury and died.

Belisarius remarks on Sassanid troops:

“

Right for you to despise them. For their whole infantry is nothing more than a crowd of pitiable peasants who come into battle for no other purpose than to dig through walls ... and in general to serve the soldiers. For this reason they have no weapons at all with which they might trouble their opponents, and they only hold before themselves those enormous shields and huge elephants.

”

Armenian wars

The most famous was the Battle of Avarayr (Armenian: Ավարայրի ճակատամարտ) in 451 CE, where Armenian rebels led by Vartan Mamikonian led an army of 66,000 men to gain independence from the Sassanids under Yazdegerd II, who opposed them with forces including war elephants.

Despite their victory over the rebels and the death of their leadership (including Vartan Mamikonian), Yazdegerd was generous and gave the Armenians their religious freedom.

Ghaznavid war elephants

Persians fighting elephants

In 1739, Nader Shah of Persia invaded India and led an army to their capital , Delhi but on the way he was halted by the Mughul Indian ruler Muhammad Shah and his huge army, it greatly outnumbered the Persian army. The Indians also had war elephants with them, they had blades on their tusks which they were taught to use against the enemy. Nader shah sent his pots of oil to the front lines where the goats horns were ordered to be set on fire. The goats charged at the elephants who panicked and turned around killing thousands of Indian troops just like at the battle of al-Qādisiyyah, they were proved to be "double edged weapons".

Origin and training

The elephant's thick hide protects it from injury. The high riding position gave the rider a good view but made him a visible target.

The elephants were hired as mercenary troops as well as their riders. They were from the Indian territories under Persian rule. Some historians say that some were actually from Iran itself. They were called Syrian Elephant. However, this is highly unlikely as most historians and sources do not say this is correct.

All the times Persians used war elephants they were trained by their rider called a mahout, who would also ride the elephant into battle as well. The mahout would be from Indian origin and so were the archers. Training elephants was a difficult job. They would be hard to maintain because they ate so much food and water. Also they were hard to march with as huge paths needed to be cut in order for elephants to march through. Another reason was that they were expensive to hire and sometimes would panic if they were under heavy fire from spears and arrows. Thousands of them lived in the elephant farms^{[citation needed]}. Many were kept in the shah's menagerie the most famous of which was Khosrau II where he kept a "thousand white elephants."

Weapons

Persian elephants were from Indian origin and were probably armed with Indian styled weapons. The men(excluding the driver) sat in a large tower from which troops would fight. The elephant itself would normally be armed with thin plate armour (the Sassanids used chain mail as well as thin plate armour)and would bear a large crenelated wooden howdah on its back^[1]. The troops would be armed with bow and arrows and javelin. The sworn enemy of the Sassanids, the Eastern Roman empire, were terrified by the huge beasts, making them very effective in battle. When they were used at the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah, they came to be known as "double edged weapons". King ( shah ) Yazdgerd III attempted to use war elephants to fight off Arab invaders, however his elephants got sand in their eyes and panicked. They turned around and ran amok, killing their own troops.

Crushing by elephant

Louis Rousselet described this execution in "Le Tour du Monde" in 1868.

(Persian: زير پى ِپيل افكندن; literally "casting beneath an elephant's feet")

Those people that were traitors to the army, enemies of the empire and criminals were crushed by the elephants this way and executed in the age of Sassanids they also used this method of execution for training for battle.

In popular culture

• In the PC strategy game Age of Empires II the Persians' special unit is the war elephant.
• In the PC strategy game expansion pack Rise of Nations: Thrones and Patriots the Persians get two special unit lines, one of which is the war elephant, which it shares with India.
• In the strategy game Rome: Total War the Parthians use war elephants. In the expansion Rome Total War: Barbarian Invasion the Sassanids can use war elephants as well, and in Rome Total War: Alexander the Achaemenid Persians also have them.
• Shatranj (Persian chess) - which Modern chess has gradually developed from it, same as Indian chess includes the war elephant with the name (fil),meaning elephant in Persian as the bishop

What is Yoga

Are you looking for a workout program that's easy to learn, requires little or no equipment, and soothes your soul while toning your body? If strengthening your cardiovascular system, toning and stretching your muscles, and improving your mental fitness are on your to-do list, keep reading to learn more about the basics of yoga.

What Is Yoga?

It seems like a hot new trend, but yoga actually began more than 3,000 years ago in India. The word yoga is Sanskrit (one of the ancient languages of the East). It means to "yoke," or unite, the mind, body, and spirit.

Although yoga includes physical exercise, it is also a lifestyle practice for which exercise is just one component. Training your mind, body, and breath, as well as connecting with your spirituality, are the main goals of the yoga lifestyle.

The physical part of the yoga lifestyle is called hatha yoga. Hatha yoga focuses on asanas, or poses. A person who practices yoga goes through a series of specific poses while controlling his or her breathing. Some types of yoga also involve meditation and chanting.

There are many different types of hatha yoga, including:

• Ashtanga yoga: Ashtanga yoga is a vigorous, fast-paced form of yoga that helps to build flexibility, strength, concentration, and stamina. When doing Ashtanga yoga, a person moves quickly through a set of predetermined poses while remaining focused on deep breathing.
• Bikram yoga: Bikram yoga is also known as "hot yoga." It is practiced in rooms that may be heated to more than 100° Fahrenheit (37.8° Celsius) and focuses on stamina and purification.
• Gentle yoga: Gentle yoga focuses on slow stretches, flexibility, and deep breathing.
• Kundalini yoga: Kundalini yoga uses different poses, breathing techniques, chanting, and meditation to awaken life energy.
• Iyengar yoga: This type of yoga focuses on precise alignment of the poses. Participants use "props" like blankets, straps, mats, blocks, and chairs.
• Restorative yoga: This practice allows the body to fully relax by holding simple postures passively for extended periods of time.
• Vinyasa/power yoga: Similar to Ashtanga yoga, these are also very active forms of yoga that improve strength, flexibility, and stamina. This type of yoga is popular in the United States.

Yoga has tons of benefits. It can improve flexibility, strength, balance, and stamina. In addition, many people who practice yoga say that it reduces anxiety and stress, improves mental clarity, and even helps them sleep better.

Getting Started

Many gyms, community centers, and YMCAs offer yoga classes. Your neighborhood may also have a specialized yoga studio. Some yoga instructors offer private or semi-private classes for students who want more personalized training.

Before taking a class, check whether the instructor is registered with the Yoga Alliance, a certification that requires at least 200 hours of training in yoga techniques and teaching. You may also want to sit in and observe the class that interests you.

You could also try using a yoga DVD. Websites, DVDs, and books can't compare to learning yoga poses from a teacher, but they can help you find out more. They can be especially helpful if you have already taken yoga classes and want to practice at home.

Dress comfortably for your first yoga session in clothing that allows you to move your body fully. Stretchy shorts or pants and a T-shirt or tank top are best. Yoga is practiced barefoot, so you don't have to worry about special shoes.

If you're doing your yoga workout on a carpeted floor, you probably don't need any equipment, although many people like to use a yoga mat or "sticky" mat. This special type of mat provides cushioning and grip while you do your poses. You can buy yoga mats in sporting goods stores or often at the yoga class location.

What can you expect at a yoga class or when you watch a yoga video? To begin the class, the instructor may lead you through a series of poses like Sun Salutations to warm up your arms, legs, and spine. After that, you'll concentrate on specific poses that work different areas of your body. Most yoga sessions end with some type of relaxation exercise.

Before you begin any type of exercise program, it's a good idea to talk to your doctor, especially if you have a health problem. Be sure to let your instructor know about any orthopedic problems or special needs you may have before the class begins. A good instructor will be able to provide modified poses for students who are just beginning or who have special needs.

Staying on Track

Your schedule's already packed — so how are you supposed to fit in time for yoga? Here are a few tips:

• Break it down. If you can't do a half hour of yoga in one sitting, try doing it in chunks. How about 15 minutes after you get up and 15 minutes before bed? Or try three 10-minute workouts to break up a long study session.
• Do what works for you. Some people have more success working out in the morning before the day's activities sidetrack them; others find that an after-school workout is the perfect way to unwind. Experiment with working out at different times of the day and find the time that fits your schedule and energy level best.
• Find a workout buddy. Doing your yoga routines with a friend is a great way to stay motivated. You'll be less likely to miss your workout if you have an appointment with a friend. You and your buddy can compare tips on healthy eating and exercise habits, evaluate each other's poses for form, and keep each other on track.
• Consistency is key. If you want to reap the benefits that yoga provides, you'll have to do it consistently. A once-a-month yoga workout may relieve some stress, but for benefits like increased flexibility and stamina, you should aim to practice yoga three or four times a week. It generally takes about 4 to 6 weeks of regular exercise at least 3 days a week for your body to begin to release the endorphins that make exercise such an uplifting experience.
• Set some goals. The same routine every week may become monotonous, so set some goals to help you stay focused. Perhaps you'd like to incorporate power yoga into your routine so you get a better cardiovascular workout. Maybe you've always gone to yoga class and your goal is to start practicing on your own at home. Whatever you choose as your goal, make sure you reward yourself when you accomplish it!

The great thing about yoga is it can be as vigorous or as gentle as you want it to be. That makes it a good choice for anybody.

History of Library

A library is a collection of sources, resources, and services, and the structure in which it is housed; it is organized for use and maintained by a public body, an institution, or a private individual. In the more traditional sense, a library is a collection of books. It can mean the collection itself, the building or room that houses such a collection, or both. The term "library" has itself acquired a secondary meaning: "a collection of useful material for common use." This sense is used in fields such as computer science, mathematics, statistics, electronics and biology. It can also be used by publishers in naming series of related books, e.g. The Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology.

Public and institutional collections and services may be intended for use by people who choose not to — or cannot afford to — purchase an extensive collection themselves, who need material no individual can reasonably be expected to have, or who require professional assistance with their research. In addition to providing materials, libraries also provide the services of librarians who are experts at finding and organizing information and at interpreting information needs. Libraries often provide a place of silence for studying.

Today's libraries are repositories and access points for print, audio, and visual materials in numerous formats, including maps, prints, documents, microform (microfilm/microfiche), audio tapes, CDs, cassettes, videotapes, DVDs, video games, e-books, audiobooks and many other electronic resources. Libraries often provide public facilities to access to their electronic resources and the Internet. Modern libraries are increasingly being redefined as places to get unrestricted access to information in many formats and from many sources. They are extending services beyond the physical walls of a building, by providing material accessible by electronic means, and by providing the assistance of librarians in navigating and analyzing tremendous amounts of information with a variety of digital tools.

Early history

The first libraries were composed for the most part, of published records, a particular type of library called archives. Archaeological findings from the ancient city-states of Sumer have revealed temple rooms full of clay tablets in cuneiform script. These archives were made up almost completely of the records of commercial transactions or inventories, with only a few documents devoted to theological matters, historical records or legends. Things were much the same in the government and temple records on papyrus of Ancient Egypt.

The earliest discovered private archives were kept at Ugarit; besides correspondence and inventories, texts of myths may have been standardized practice-texts for teaching new scribes. There is also evidence of libraries at Nippur about 1900 B.C. and those at Nineveh about 700 B.C. showing a library classification system. Another early organization system was in effect at Alexandria.

Over 30,000 clay tablets from the Library of Ashurbanipal have been discovered at Nineveh, providing archaeologists with an amazing wealth of Mesopotamian literary, religious and administrative work. Among the findings were the Enuma Elish, also known as the Epic of Creation, which depicts a traditional Babylonian view of creation, the Epic of Gilgamesh, a large selection of "omen texts" including Enuma Anu Enlil which "contained omens dealing with the moon, its visibility, eclipses, and conjunction with planets and fixed stars, the sun, its corona, spots, and eclipses, the weather, namely lightning, thunder, and clouds, and the planets and their visibility, appearance, and stations", and astronomic/astrological texts, as well as standard lists used by scribes and scholars such as word lists, bilingual vocabularies, lists of signs and synonyms, and lists of medical diagnoses.

Libraries in the Hellenic world and Rome

Inscription regarding Tiberius Claudius Balbilus of Rome (d. c. AD 79), which confirms that the Library of Alexandria must have existed in some form in the first century.^{[citation needed]}

Private or personal libraries made up of non-fiction and fiction books (as opposed to the state or institutional records kept in archives) appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC. The celebrated book collectors of Hellenistic Antiquity were listed in the late 2nd century in Deipnosophistae:

Polycrates of Samos and Pisistratus who was tyrant of Athens, and Euclides who was himself also an Athenian and Nicorrates of Samos and even the kings of Pergamos, and Euripides the poet and Aristotle the philosopher, and Nelius his librarian; from whom they say our countryman Ptolemæus, surnamed Philadelphus, bought them all, and transported them, with all those which he had collected at Athens and at Rhodes to his own beautiful Alexandria.

All these libraries were Greek; the cultivated Hellenized diners in Deipnosophistae pass over the libraries of Rome in silence. By the time of Augustus there were public libraries near the forums of Rome: there were libraries in the Porticus Octaviae near the Theatre of Marcellus, in the temple of Apollo Palatinus, and in the Bibliotheca Ulpiana in the Forum of Trajan. The state archives were kept in a structure on the slope between the Roman Forum and the Capitoline Hill.

Private libraries appeared during the late republic: Seneca inveighed against libraries fitted out for show by aliterate owners who scarcely read their titles in the course of a lifetime, but displayed the scrolls in bookcases (armaria) of citrus wood inlaid with ivory that ran right to the ceiling: "by now, like bathrooms and hot water, a library is got up as standard equipment for a fine house (domus). Libraries were amenities suited to a villa, such as Cicero's at Tusculum, Maecenas's several villas, or Pliny the Younger's, all described in surviving letters. At the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum, apparently the villa of Caesar's father-in-law, the Greek library has been partly preserved in volcanic ash; archaeologists speculate that a Latin library, kept separate from the Greek one, may await discovery at the site.

In the West, the first public libraries were established under the Roman Empire as each succeeding emperor strove to open one or many which outshone that of his predecessor. Unlike the Greek libraries, readers had direct access to the scrolls, which were kept on shelves built into the walls of a large room. Reading or copying was normally done in the room itself. The surviving records give only a few instances of lending features. As a rule, Roman public libraries were bilingual: they had a Latin room and a Greek room. Most of the large Roman baths were also cultural centers, built from the start with a library, a two room arrangement with one room for Greek and one for Latin texts.

Remains of the Library of Celsus at Ephesus.

Libraries were filled with parchment scrolls as at Library of Pergamum and on papyrus scrolls as at Alexandria: the export of prepared writing materials was a staple of commerce. There were a few institutional or royal libraries which were open to an educated public (such as the Serapeum collection of the Library of Alexandria, once the largest library in the ancient world),^[2] but on the whole collections were private. In those rare cases where it was possible for a scholar to consult library books there seems to have been no direct access to the stacks. In all recorded cases the books were kept in a relatively small room where the staff went to get them for the readers, who had to consult them in an adjoining hall or covered walkway.

In the 6th century, at the very close of the Classical period, the great libraries of the Mediterranean world remained those of Constantinople and Alexandria. Cassiodorus, minister to Theodoric, established a monastery at Vivarium in the heel of Italy with a library where he attempted to bring Greek learning to Latin readers and preserve texts both sacred and secular for future generations. As its unofficial librarian, Cassiodorus not only collected as many manuscripts as he could, he also wrote treatises aimed at instructing his monks in the proper uses of reading and methods for copying texts accurately. In the end, however, the library at Vivarium was dispersed and lost within a century.

Through Origen and especially the scholarly presbyter Pamphilus of Caesarea, an avid collector of books of Scripture, the theological school of Caesarea won a reputation for having the most extensive ecclesiastical library of the time, containing more than 30,000 manuscripts: Gregory Nazianzus, Basil the Great, Jerome and others come studied there.

With education firmly in Christian hands, however, many of the works of classical antiquity were no longer considered useful.^{[citation needed]} Old texts were washed off and the valuable parchment and papyrus were reused, forming palimpsests. As scrolls gave way to the new book-form, the codex was universally used for Christian literature. Old manuscript scrolls were cut apart and used to stiffen leather bindings.

Ancient Chinese libraries

A cabinet of books in the Tian Yi Chamber, the oldest extant library in China, dating to 1561.

The imperial library is the earliest known Chinese library, with history dating back to the Qin Dynasty. Han Chinese scholar Liu Hsiang established the first library classification system during the Han Dynasty, and the first book notation system. At this time the library catalog was written on scrolls of fine silk and stored in silk bags.

Islamic libraries

Upon the spread of Islam, libraries in newly Islamic lands knew a brief period of expansion in the Middle East, North Africa, Sicily and Spain. Like the Christian libraries, they mostly contained books which were made of paper, and took a codex or modern form instead of scrolls; they could be found in mosques, private homes, and universities, from Timbuktu to Afghanistan. In Aleppo, for example, the largest and probably the oldest mosque library, the Sufiya, located at the city's Grand Umayyad Mosque, contained a large book collection of which 10,000 volumes were reportedly bequeathed by the city's most famous ruler, Prince Sayf al-Dawla.^[13] Some mosques sponsored public libraries. Ibn al-Nadim's bibliography Fihrist demonstrates the devotion of medieval Muslim scholars to books and reliable sources; it contains a description of thousands of books circulating in the Islamic world circa 1000, including an entire section for books about the doctrines of other religions. Modern Islamic libraries for the most part do not hold these antique books; many were lost, destroyed by Mongols, or removed to European libraries and museums during the colonial period.

Qur'an manuscript on display at the Bibliotheca Alexandrina

By the 8th century first Iranians and then Arabs had imported the craft of papermaking from China, with a paper mill already at work in Baghdad in 794. By the 9th century completely public libraries started to appear in many Islamic cities. They were called "halls of Science" or dar al-'ilm. They were each endowed by Islamic sects with the purpose of representing their tenets as well as promoting the dissemination of secular knowledge. The 9th century Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakkil of Iraq, even ordered the construction of a ‘zawiyat qurra literally an enclosure for readers which was `lavishly furnished and equipped.' In Shiraz Adhud al-Daula (d. 983) set up a library, described by the medieval historian, al-Muqaddasi, as`a complex of buildings surrounded by gardens with lakes and waterways. The buildings were topped with domes, and comprised an upper and a lower story with a total, according to the chief official, of 360 rooms.... In each department, catalogues were placed on a shelf... the rooms were furnished with carpets...'.^[15] The libraries often employed translators and copyists in large numbers, in order to render into Arabic the bulk of the available Persian, Greek, Roman and Sanskrit non-fiction and the classics of literature. This flowering of Islamic learning ceased centuries later when learning began declining in the Islamic world, after many of these libraries were destroyed by Mongol invasions. Others were victim of wars and religious strife in the Islamic world. However, a few examples of these medieval libraries, such as the libraries of Chinguetti in West Africa, remain intact and relatively unchanged even today. Another ancient library from this period which is still operational and expanding is the Central Library of Astan Quds Razavi in the Iranian city of Mashhad, which has been operating for more than six centuries.

A number of distinct features of the modern library were introduced in the Islamic world, where libraries not only served as a collection of manuscripts as was the case in ancient libraries, but also as a public library and lending library, a center for the instruction and spread of sciences and ideas, a place for meetings and discussions, and sometimes as a lodging for scholars or boarding school for pupils. The concept of the library catalogue was also introduced in medieval Islamic libraries, where books were organized into specific genres and categories.

The contents of these Islamic libraries were copied by Christian monks in Muslim/Christian border areas, particularly Spain and Sicily. From there they eventually made their way into other parts of Christian Europe. These copies joined works that had been preserved directly by Christian monks from Greek and Roman originals, as well as copies Western Christian monks made of Byzantine works. The resulting conglomerate libraries are the basis of every modern library today