Dogs in Army

Dogs in warfare have a long history starting in ancient times. From 'war dogs' trained in combat to their use as scouts, sentries and trackers, their uses have been varied and some continue to exist in modern military usage.

History

War dogs were used by the Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Sarmatians, Alans, Slavs, Britons, and the Romans. The Molossian 'Canis Molossus' dog of Epirus was the strongest known to the Romans, and was specifically trained for battle. However, when fought against the broad-mouthed, powerful mastiff of Britannia, they were outmatched. The Romans exported many of this breed of mastiff to Rome and then disseminated them over the known world. Often war dogs would be sent into battle with large protective spiked metal collars and coats of mail armor. The Romans had attack formations made entirely of dogs. Native Americans also used dogs, though not on this scale.

During the Late Antiquity, Attila the Hun used giant Molosser dogs in his campaigns. Gifts of war dog breeding stock between European royalty were seen as suitable tokens for exchange throughout the Middle Ages. Other civilizations used armored dogs to defend caravans or attack enemies. The Spanish conquistadors used armoured dogs that had been trained to kill and disembowel when they invaded the land controlled by South American natives. The British used dogs when they attacked the Irish and the Irish in turn used Irish Wolfhounds to attack invading Norman knights on horseback. Two wolfhounds, or even a single one were often capable of taking a mounted man in armour off his horse, where the lightly armed handler would finish him off if necessary.

Later on, Frederick the Great used dogs as messengers during the Seven Years' War with Russia. Napoleon would also used dogs during his campaigns. Dogs were used up until 1770 to guard naval installations in France.

The first official use of dogs for military purposes in the United States was during the Seminole Wars. The American Pit Bull Terrier was used in the American Civil War to protect, send messages, and as mascots in American WWI propaganda and recruiting posters.

Historical examples

The use of dogs in warfare has been common even in many early civilizations. As warfare has progressed, their purposes have changed greatly. Some examples are:

• 628 BC: The Lydians deployed a separate battalion of fighting dogs.
• 525 BC: Cambyses II used huge fighting dogs against Egyptian spearmen and archers.
• 490 BC: Battle of Marathon: A brave fighting dog was immortalized in a mural.
• 385 BC: Siege of Mantineia: Fighting dogs cut off enemy reinforcements.
• 101 BC: Battle of Vercellae: Large Cimbri dogs led by women defended their wagon forts.
• 1525: Henry VIII exported 400 mastiffs to support Spain.
• 1580: Elizabeth I sent 800 fighting dogs to fight in the Desmond Rebellions.
• 1799: Napoleon assembled large numbers of fighting dogs in front of his reserves.
• 1914: The Belgian Army used carabiniers, strong-muscled Bouvier des Flandres to haul heavy machine guns to the front.
• 1914–1918: Dogs were used by international forces to deliver vital messages.
• 1941–1945: The Soviet Union used dogs strapped with explosives to destroy invading German tanks.
• 1943–1945: The United States Marine Corps used dogs, donated by their American owners, in the Pacific theater to help take islands back from Japanese occupying forces. During this period the Doberman Pinscher became the official dog of the U.S.M.C.; however, all breeds of dogs were eligible to train to be "war dogs of the Pacific". Of the 549 dogs that returned from the war, only 4 could not be detrained and returned to civilian life. Many of the dogs went home with their handlers from the war.
• 1966–1973: Approximately 5,000 US war dogs served in the Vietnam War (the US Army did not retain records prior to 1968); about 10,000 US servicemen served as dog-handlers during the war, and the K9 units are estimated to have saved over 10,000 human lives. 232 military working dogs and 295 US servicemen working as dog handlers were killed in action during the war. It is estimated that about 200 Vietnam War dogs survived the war to be assigned at other US bases outside the US. The remaining canines were euthanized or left behind.
• 1979–1988: The Soviet Union again used dogs, this time in the Soviet war in Afghanistan.
• 2011: United States Navy SEALs used a Belgian Malinois war dog named Cairo in Operation Neptune Spear, in which Osama bin Laden was killed.

Roles

U.S. Army SP4 Bealock and scout dog "Chief" on patrol in Vietnam.

Dogs have been used for many different purposes. Different breeds were used for different things, but always met the demands of the handlers. Many roles for dogs in war are obsolete and no longer practiced.

Historical

Fighting

Military working dog wearing body armor, undergoing aggression training in Afghanistan.

In ancient times, dogs, often large ancient mastiff type breeds, would be strapped with armor and spiked collars, and sent into battle to attack the enemy. This strategy was used by various civilizations, such as the Romans and the Greeks. This approach has been largely abandoned in modern day militaries due to the fact that modern weapons would allow the dogs to be killed almost immediately, as on Okinawa when U.S. soldiers quickly eliminated a platoon of Japanese soldiers and their dogs.

Another program attempted during World War II was suggested by a Swiss citizen living in Santa Fe, New Mexico. William A. Prestre proposed using large dogs to kill Japanese soldiers. He convinced the military to lease an entire island in the Mississippi to house the training facilities. There the army hoped to train as many as two million dogs. The idea was to begin island invasions with landing craft releasing thousands of dogs against the Japanese defenders, then followed up by troops as the Japanese defenders scattered in confusion. One of the biggest problems encountered was getting Japanese soldiers to train the dogs with, as few Japanese soldiers were being captured. Eventually, Japanese-American soldiers volunteered for the training. The biggest problem was the dogs; either they were too docile, did not respond to training teaching them to rush across beaches, or were terrified by shellfire. After millions of dollars were spent, the program was abandoned.

Logistics & communication

About the time World War I broke out, many Europeans used dogs to pull small carts.^[15] Many European armies adapted the process for military use. The Belgian Army used dogs to pull their Maxim Guns and other supplies or wounded in their carts. The French had 250 dogs at the start of World War I. The Dutch army copied the idea and had hundreds of dogs trained and ready by the end of World War I (the Netherlands remained neutral). The Soviet army also used dogs to drag wounded men to aid stations during WWII. The dogs were well-suited to transporting loads over snow and through craters.

Dogs were often used to carry messages in battle. They would be turned loose to move silently to a second handler. This required a dog which was very loyal to two masters, otherwise the dog would not deliver the message on time, or at all. Some messenger dogs also performed othercommunication jobs, such as pulling telephone lines from one location to another.

Mascots

Dogs were often used as unit mascots for military units. The dog in question might be an officer's dog, an animal that the unit chose to adopt, or one of their canines employed in another role as a working dog. Some naval dogs such as Sinbad and Judy were themselves enlisted service members. Some units also chose to employ a particular breed of dog as their standard mascot, with new dogs replacing the old when it died or was retired. The presence of a mascot was designed to uplift morale, and many were used to this effect in the trenches of World War I.

Medical research

Medical researchers, and their allies in the armed forces, awarded military-style medals to animals in laboratories to emphasize the martial significance of animal experimentation. Here, Army Surgeon General Major General Norman T. Kirk, on behalf of the Friends of Medical Research, bestows medals upon research dogs Trixie and Josie "for outstanding services to humanity."

In World War II, dogs took on a new role in medical experimentation, as the primary animals chosen for medical research. The animal experimentation allowed doctors to test new medicine without risking human lives, though these practices came under more scrutiny after the war. The United States' government responded by proclaiming these dogs as heroes.

The Cold War sparked a heated debate over the ethics of animal experimentation in the U.S., particularly aimed at how canines were treated in World War II. In 1966, major reforms came to this field with the adoption of the Laboratory Animal Welfare Act.

Detection & tracking

Many dogs were used to locate mines. They did not prove to be very effective under combat conditions. Marine mine detecting dogs were trained using bare electric wires beneath the ground surface. The wires shocked the dogs, teaching them that danger lurked under the dirt. Once the dog's focus was properly directed, dummy mines were planted and the dogs were trained to signal their presence. While the dogs effectively found the mines, the task proved so stressful for the dogs they were only able to work between 20 and 30 minutes at a time. The mine detecting war dogs anticipated random shocks from the heretofore friendly earth, making them extremely nervous.^{[clarification needed]} The useful service life of the dogs was not long. Experiments with lab rats show that this trend can be very extreme, in some tests rats even huddled in the corner to the point of starvation to avoid electric shock.

This is the result of variable schedule operant conditioning. Rather than shocking the entire ground surface, the electric shock components should be placed directly over the mine detonation area. This would teach the dogs and mice that only sections of ground over mines are dangerous, not all of the ground.

Dogs have historically also been used in many cases to track fugitives and enemy troops, overlapping partly into the duties of a scout dog, but use their olfactory skill in tracking a scent, rather than warning a handler at the initial presentation of a scent.

Marine Raiders take scouting and messenger dogs to the frontlines on Bougainville, late 1943

Scouts

SCOUT DOG by Augustine G. Acuna, Vietnam Combat Artists Program, CAT II, 1966-67. Image courtesy of National Museum of the U. S. Army.

Some dogs are trained to silently locate booby traps and concealed enemies such as snipers. The dog's keen senses of smell and hearing would make them far more effective at detecting these dangers than humans. The best scout dogs are described as having a disposition intermediate to docile tracking dogs and aggressive attack dogs.

Scout dogs were used in World War II, Korea, and Vietnam by the United States to detect ambushes, weapon caches, or enemy fighters hiding underwater, with only reed breathing straws showing above the waterline. The US operated a number of scout dog platoons (assigned on a handler-and-dog team basis to individual patrols) and had a dedicated dog training school in Fort Benning, Georgia.

Sentries

One of the earliest military-related uses, sentry dogs were used to defend camps or other priority areas at night and sometimes during the day. They would bark or growl to alert guards of a stranger's presence. During the Cold War, the American military used sentry dog teams outside of nuclear weapons storage areas. A test program was conducted in Vietnam to test sentry dogs, launched two days after a successful Vietcong attack on Da Nang Air Base (July 1, 1965). Forty dog teams were deployed to Vietnam for a four month test period, with teams placed on the perimeter in front of machine gun towers/bunkers. The detection of intruders resulted in a rapid deployment of reinforcements. The test was successful, so the handlers returned to the US while the dogs were reassigned to new handlers. The Air Force immediately started to ship dog teams to all the bases in Vietnam and Thailand.

The buildup of American forces in Vietnam created large dog sections at USAF Southeast Asia (SEA) bases. 467 dogs were eventually assigned to Bien Hoa, Bien Thuy, Cam Ranh Bay, Da Nang, Nha Trang, Tuy Hoa, Phu Cat, Phan Rang, Tan Son Nhut, and Pleiku Air Bases. Within a year of deployment, attacks on several bases had been stopped when the enemy forces were detected by dog teams. Captured Vietcong told of the fear and respect that they had for the dogs. The Vietcong even placed a bounty on lives of handlers and dogs. The success of sentry dogs was determined by the lack of successful penetrations of bases in Vietnam and Thailand. It is estimated by the United States War Dogs Association that war dogs saved over 10,000 U.S. lives in Vietnam. Sentry Dogs were also used by the Army, Navy, and Marines to protect the perimeter of large bases.

Modern uses

U.S. Army military working dog searches among rubble and trash outside a target building in Rusafa, eastern Baghdad, Iraq.

Contemporary dogs in military roles are also often referred to as police dogs, or in the United States as a Military Working Dog (MWD), or K-9. Their roles are nearly as varied as their ancient cousins, though they tend to be more rarely used in front-line formations. As of 2011, 600 U.S. Military dogs were actively participating in the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan.^[24]

Traditionally, the most common breed for these police-type operations has been the German Shepherd; in recent years there has been a shift to smaller dogs with keener senses of smell for detection work, and more resilient breeds such as the Belgian Malinois and Dutch Shepherd for patrolling and law enforcement. All MWDs in use today are paired with a single individual after their training. This person is called a handler. While a handler usually won't stay with one dog for the length of either's career, usually a handler will stay partnered with a dog for at least a year, and sometimes much longer.

In the 1970s the US Air Force used over 1,600 dogs worldwide. Today, personnel cutbacks have reduced USAF dog teams to approximately 530, stationed throughout the world. Many dogs that operate in these roles are trained at Lackland Air Force Base, the only United States facility that currently trains dogs for military use.

Change has also come in legislation for the benefit of the canines. Prior to 2000, older war dogs were required to be euthanized. Thanks to a new law, retired military dogs may now be adopted, the first of which was Lex, a working dog whose handler was killed in Iraq.

There are numerous memorials dedicated to war dogs, including March Field Air Museum in Riverside, California; the Infantry School at Fort Benning, Georgia; at the Naval Facility, Guam, with replicas at the University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine in Knoxville; the Alfred M. Gray Marine Corps Research Center in Quantico, Virginia; and the Alabama War Dogs Memorial at the USS Alabama Battleship Memorial Park in Mobile, Alabama.

Law enforcement

A dog inspects baggage for loading aboard an HMX-1 aircraft.

As a partner in everyday military police work, dogs have proved versatile and loyal officers. Police dogs can chase suspects, track them if they are hidden, and guard them when they are caught. They are trained to respond viciously if their handler is attacked, and otherwise not to react at all unless they are commanded to do so by their handler. Many police dogs are also trained in detection as well.

Drug and explosives detection

Both MWDs and their civilian counterparts provide service in drug detection, sniffing out a broad range of psychoactive substances despite efforts at concealment. Provided they have been trained to detect it, MWDs can smell small traces of nearly any substance, even if it is in a sealed container. Dogs trained in drug detection are normally used at ports of embarkation such as airports, checkpoints, and other places where there is high security and a need for anti-contraband measures.

MWDs can also be trained to detect explosives. As with narcotics, trained MWDs can detect minuscule amounts of a wide range of explosives, making them useful for searching entry points, patrolling within secure installations, and at checkpoints. These dogs are capable of achieving over a 98% success rate in bomb detection.

Intimidation

A bound prisoner in an orange jumpsuit is intimidated with a dog by a U.S. soldier.

The use of Military Working Dogs on prisoners by the United States during recent wars in Afghanistan and Iraq has been very controversial.

Iraq War: The U.S. has used dogs to intimidate prisoners in Iraqi prisons. In court testimony following the revelations of Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse, it was stated that Col. Thomas M. Pappas approved the use of dogs for interrogations. Pvt. Ivan L. Frederick testified that interrogators were authorized to use dogs and that a civilian contract interrogator left him lists of the cells he wanted dog handlers to visit. "They were allowed to use them to ... intimidate inmates", Frederick stated. Two soldiers, Sgt. Santos A. Cardona and Sgt. Michael J. Smith, were then charged with maltreatment of detainees, for allegedly encouraging and permitting unmuzzled working dogs to threaten and attack them. Prosecutors have focused on an incident caught in published photographs, when the two men allegedly cornered a naked detainee and allowed the dogs to bite him on each thigh as he cowered in fear.

Guantanamo Bay: It is believed that the use of dogs on prisoners in Iraq was learned from practices at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base. The use of dogs on prisoners by regular U.S. forces in Guantanamo Bay Naval Base was prohibited by Donald Rumsfeld in April 2003. A few months later following revelations of abuses at Abu Ghraib prison, including use of dogs to terrify naked prisoners; Rumsfeld then issued a further order prohibiting their use by the regular U.S. forces in Iraq.

Retirement

Traditionally, as in WWII, US military working dogs (war dogs) were returned home after the war; to their former owners or new adopted ones. The Vietnam War was different in that US war dogs were designated as expendable equipment and were either euthanized or turned over to an allied army prior to the US departure from South Vietnam. Due to lobbying efforts by veteran dog handlers from the Vietnam War Congress approved a bill allowing veteran US military working dogs to be adopted after their military service. In 2000, President Bill Clinton signed a law that allowed these dogs to be adopted, making the Vietnam War the only American war in which US war dogs never came home

Ship Transport

Ship transport is watercraft carrying people (passengers) or goods (cargo). Sea transport has been the largest carrier of freight throughout recorded history. Although the importance of sea travel for passengers has decreased due to aviation, it is effective for short trips and pleasure cruises. Transport by water is cheaper than transport by air.

Ship transport can be over any distance by boat, ship, sailboat or barge, over oceans and lakes, through canals or along rivers. Shipping may be for commerce, recreation or the military. Virtually any material that can be moved, can be moved by water, however water transport becomes impractical when material delivery is highly time-critical. "General cargo" is goods packaged in boxes, cases, pallets, and barrels. Containerization revolutionized ship transport in the 1960s. When a cargo is carried in more than one mode, it is intermodal or co-modal.At the age of 15 you can work with Ship transport.

Merchant shipping

For more details on this topic, see Shipping lane.

For more details on this topic, see Merchant Navy.

2005 registration of merchant ships (1,000 gross register tons (GRT) and over) per country.^[1]

A nation's shipping fleet (merchant navy, merchant marine, merchant fleet) consists of the ships operated by civilian crews to transport passengers or cargo. Professionals are merchant seaman, merchant sailor, and merchant mariner, or simply seaman, sailor, or mariner. The terms "seaman" or "sailor" may refer to a member of a country's navy.

According to the 2005 CIA World Factbook, the world total number of merchant ships of 1,000 Gross Register Tons or over was 30,936. Statistics for individual countries are available at the List of merchant marine capacity by country.

Professional mariners

A ship's complement can be divided into four categories: the deck department, the engineering department, the steward's department, and other.

Deck department

An able seaman stands iceberg lookout on the bow of the freighter USNS Southern Cross during a re-supply mission to McMurdo Station, Antarctica; circa 1981.

Officer positions in the deck department include but not limited to: Master and his Chief, Second, and Third officers. The official classifications for unlicensed members of the deck department are Able Seaman and Ordinary Seaman.

A common deck crew for a ship includes:

• (1) Chief Officer/Chief Mate
• (1) Second Officer /Second Mate
• (1) Third Officer / Third Mate
• (1) Boatswain
• (2-6) Able Seamen
• (0-2) Ordinary Seamen

A deck cadet is person who is carrying out mandatory seatime to achieve their officer of the watch certificate. Their time onboard is spent learning the operations and tasks of everyday life on a merchant vessel.

Engineering department

A ship's engineering department consists of the members of a ship's crew that operate and maintain the propulsion and other systems on board the vessel. Marine Engineering staff also deal with the "Hotel" facilities on board, notably the sewage, lighting, air conditioning and water systems. They deal with bulk fuel transfers, and require training in firefighting and first aid, as well as in dealing with the ship's boats and other nautical tasks- especially with cargo loading/discharging gear and safety systems, though the specific cargo discharge function remains the responsibility of deck officers and deck workers. On LPG and LNG tankers however, a cargo engineer works with the deck department during cargo operations, as well as being a watchkeeping engineer.

A common Engineering crew for a ship includes:

• (1) Chief Engineer
• (1) Second Engineer / First Assistant Engineer
• (1) Third Engineer / Second Assistant Engineer
• (1-2) Fourth Engineer / Third Assistant Engineer
• (0-2) Fifth Engineer / Junior Engineer
• (1-3) Oiler (unlicensed qualified rating)
• (0-3) Greaser/s (unlicensed qualified rating)
• (1-5) Entry-level rating (such as Wiper (occupation), Utilityman, etc.)

Many American ships also carry a Qualified Member of the Engine Department. Other possible positions include Motorman, Machinist, Electrician, Refrigeration Engineer, and Tankerman. Engine Cadets are trainee engineers who are completing sea time necessary before they can obtain a watchkeeping license.

Steward's department

A typical Steward's department for a cargo ship would be composed of a Chief Steward, a Chief Cook, and a Steward's Assistant. All three positions are typically filled by unlicensed personnel.

The chief steward directs, instructs, and assigns personnel performing such functions as preparing and serving meals; cleaning and maintaining officers' quarters and steward department areas; and receiving, issuing, and inventorying stores.

On large passenger vessels, the Catering Department is headed by the Chief Purser and managed by assistant pursers. Although they enjoy the benefits of having officer rank, they generally progress through the ranks to become pursers. Under the pursers are the department heads - such as chief cook, head waiter, head barman etc. They are responsible for the administration of their own areas.

The chief steward also plans menus; compiles supply, overtime, and cost control records. May requisition or purchase stores and equipment. May bake bread, rolls, cakes, pies, and pastries.

A chief steward's duties may overlap with those of the Steward's Assistant, the Chief Cook, and other Steward's Department crewmembers.

In the United States Merchant Marine, in order to be occupied as a chief steward a person has to have a Merchant Mariner's Document issued by the United States Coast Guard. Because of international conventions and agreements, all chief cooks who sail internationally are similarly documented by their respective countries.

Other Departments

Staff officer positions on a ship, including Junior Assistant Purser, Senior Assistant Purser, Purser, Chief Purser, Medical Doctor, Professional Nurse, Marine Physician Assistant, and Hospital Corpsman, are considered administrative positions and are therefore regulated by Certificates of Registry issued by the United States Coast Guard. Pilots are also merchant marine officers and are licensed by the Coast Guard. Formerly, there was also a radio department, headed by a chief radio officer and supported by a number of radio officers. Since the introduction of GMDSS (Satellite communications) and the subsequent exemptions from carrying radio officers if the vessel is so equipped, this department has fallen away, although many ships do still carry specialist radio officers, particularly passenger vessels. Many radio officers became 'electro-technical officers', and transferred into the engineering department.

Life at sea

Mariners live much of their life spent beyond the reach of land. They face sometimes dangerous conditions at sea. Yet men and women still go to sea. For some, the attraction is a life unencumbered with the restraints of life ashore. Sea-going adventure and a chance to see the world also appeal to many seafarers. Whatever the calling, those who live and work at sea invariably confront social isolation.

Findings by the Seafarer's International Research Center indicate a leading cause of mariners leaving the industry is "almost invariably because they want to be with their families." U.S. merchant ships typically do not allow family members to accompany seafarers on voyages. Industry experts increasingly recognize isolation, stress, and fatigue as occupational hazards. Advocacy groups such as International Labour Organization, a United Nations agency, and the Nautical Institute are seeking improved international standards for mariners.

Ocean voyages are steeped in routine. Maritime tradition dictates that each day be divided into six four-hour periods. Three groups of watchkeepers from the engine and deck departments work four hours on then have eight hours off watchkeeping. However there are many overtime jobs to be done daily. This cycle repeats endlessly, 24 hours a day while the ship is at sea. Members of the steward department typically are day workers who put in at least eight-hour shifts. Operations at sea, including repairs, safeguarding against piracy, securing cargo, underway replenishment, and other duties provide opportunities for overtime work. Service aboard ships typically extends for months at a time, followed by protracted shore leave. However, some seamen secure jobs on ships they like and stay aboard for years.

In rare cases, veteran mariners choose never to go ashore when in port. Further, the often quick turnaround of many modern ships, spending only a matter of hours in port, limits a seafarer's free-time ashore. Moreover, some foreign seamen entering U.S. ports from a watchlist of 25 high-risk countries face restrictions on shore leave due to security concerns in a post 9/11 environment. However, shore leave restrictions while in U.S. ports impact American seamen as well. For example, the International Organization of Masters, Mates & Pilots notes a trend of U.S. shipping terminal operators restricting seamen from traveling from the ship to the terminal gate. Further, in cases where transit is allowed, special "security fees" are at times assessed.

Such restrictions on shore leave coupled with reduced time in port by many ships translate into longer periods at sea. Mariners report that extended periods at sea living and working with shipmates who for the most part are strangers takes getting used to. At the same time, there is an opportunity to meet people from other ethnic and cultural backgrounds. Recreational opportunities have improved aboard some U.S. ships, which may feature gyms and day rooms for watching movies, swapping sea stories, and other activities. And in some cases, especially tankers, it is made possible for a mariner to be accompanied by members of his family. However, a mariner’s off duty time is largely a solitary affair, pursuing hobbies, reading, writing letters, and sleeping.

On modern ocean going vessels, typically registered with a flag of convenience, life has changed immensely in the last 20 years. Most large vessels include a gym and often a swimming pool for use by the crew. Since the Exxon Valdez incident, the focus of leisure time activity has shifted from having officer and crew bars, to simply having lounge-style areas where officers or crew can sit to watch movies. With many companies now providing TVs and DVD players in cabins, and enforcing strict smoking policies, it is not surprising that the bar is now a much quieter place on most ships. In some instances games consoles are provided for the officers and crew. The officers enjoy a much higher standard of living on board ocean going vessels. Crews are generally poorly paid, poorly qualified and have to complete contracts of approx 9 months before returning home on leave. They often come from countries where the average industrial wage is still very low, such as the Philippines or India. Officers however, come from all over the world and it is not uncommon to mix the nationality of the officers on board ships. Officers are often the recipients of university degrees and have completed vast amounts of training in order to reach their rank. Officers benefit on board by having larger, more comfortable cabins, table service for their meals, etc. Contracts average at the 4 month mark for officers, with generous leave. Most Ocean going vessels now operate an Unmanned Engineroom System allowing engineers to work days only. The engine room is computer controlled by night, although the duty engineer will make inspections during unmanned operation. Engineers work in a hot, humid, noisy atmosphere. Communication in the engineroom is therefore by hand signals and lip-reading, and good teamwork often stands in place of any communication at all

Road Transport

Road transport (British English) or road transportation (American English) is transport on roads of passengers or goods. A hybrid of road transport and ship transport is the historic horse-drawn boat.

History

The first methods of road transport were horses, oxen or even humans carrying goods over dirt tracks that often followed game trails. As commerce increased, the tracks were often flattened or widened to accommodate the activities. Later, the travois, a frame used to drag loads, was developed. The wheel came still later, probably preceded by the use of logs as rollers. Early stone-paved roads were built in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley Civilization. The Persians later built a network of Royal Roads across their empire.

With the advent of the Roman Empire, there was a need for armies to be able to travel quickly from one area to another, and the roads that existed were often muddy, which greatly delayed the movement of large masses of troops. To resolve this issue, the Romans built great roads. The Roman roads used deep roadbeds of crushed stone as an underlying layer to ensure that they kept dry, as the water would flow out from the crushed stone, instead of becoming mud in clay soils. The Islamic Caliphate later built tar-paved roads in Baghdad.

During the Industrial Revolution, and because of the increased commerce that came with it, improved roadways became imperative. The problem was rain combined with dirt roads created commerce-miring mud. John Loudon McAdam (1756–1836) designed the first modern highways. He developed an inexpensive paving material of soil and stone aggregate (known as macadam), and he embanked roads a few feet higher than the surrounding terrain to cause water to drain away from the surface. At the same time, Thomas Telford, made substantial advances in the engineering of new roads and the construction of bridges, particularly, the London to Holyhead road.

Various systems had been developed over centuries to reduce bogging and dust in cities, including cobblestones and wooden paving. Tar-bound macadam (tarmac) was applied to macadam roads towards the end of the 19th century in cities such as Paris. In the early 20th century tarmac and concrete paving were extended into the countryside.

Transportation

A public transport Bus

Transport on roads can be roughly grouped into two categories: transportation of goods and transportation of people. In many countries licencing requirements and safety regulations ensure a separation of the two industries.

The nature of road transportation of goods depends, apart from the degree of development of the local infrastructure, on the distance the goods are transported by road, the weight and volume of the individual shipment and the type of goods transported. For short distances and light, small shipments a van or pickup truck may be used. For large shipments even if less than a full truckload (Less than truckload) a truck is more appropriate. (Also see Trucking and Hauling below). In some countries cargo is transported by road in horse-drawn carriages, donkey carts or other non-motorized mode (see animal-powered transport). Delivery services (see Delivery (commerce)) are sometimes considered a separate category from cargo transport. In many places fast food is transported on roads by various types of vehicles. For inner city delivery of small packages and documents bike couriers are quite common.

People (Passengers) are transported on roads either in individual cars or automobiles or in mass transit/public transport by bus / Coach (vehicle). Special modes of individual transport by road like rickshaws or velotaxis may also be locally available. (Also see links below).

Trucking and hauling

"Trucking" redirects here. For the song by the Grateful Dead, see Truckin'.

Sheep in a B Double truck, Moree, New South Wales, Australia.

Trucking companies (AE) or haulers/hauliers (BE) accept cargo for road transport. Truck drivers operate either independently working directly for the client or through freight carriers or shipping agents. Some big companies (e.g. grocery store chains) operate their own internal trucking operations.

In the U.S. many truckers own their truck (rig), and are known as owner-operators. Some road transportation is done on regular routes or for only one consignee per run, while others transport goods from many different loading stations/shippers to various consignees. On some long runs only cargo for one lag of the route (to) is known when the cargo is loaded. Truckers may have to wait at the destination for the return cargo (from).

A Bill of Lading issued by the shipper provides the basic document for road freight. On cross-border transportation the trucker will present the cargo and documentation provided by the shipper to customs for inspection (for EC see also Schengen Agreement). This also applies to shipments that are transported out of a Free port.

To avoid accidents caused by fatigue, truckers have to keep to strict rules for drivetime and required rest periods. Known in the U.S. as hours of service, and in the E.U. as drivers working hours. See e.g. "Hours of Work and Rest Periods (Road Transport) Convention, 1979" or . Tachographs record the times the vehicle is in motion and stopped. Some companies use two drivers per truck to ensure uninterrupted transportation; with one driver resting or sleeping in a bunk in the back of the cab while the other is driving. (see e.g. or .

Truck drivers often need special licences to drive, known in the U.S. as a commercial driver's license. In the U.K. a Large Goods Vehicle licence is required.

For transport of hazardous materials (see dangerous goods) truckers need a licence, which usually requires them to pass an exam (e.g. in the EU). They have to make sure they affix proper labels for the respective hazard(s) to their vehicle. Liquid goods are transported by road in tank trucks (AE) or tanker lorries (BE) (also road-tankers) or special tankcontainers for intermodal transport. For unpackaged goods and liquids weigh stations confirm weight after loading and before delivery. For transportation of live animals special requirements have to be met in many countries to prevent cruelty to animals (see animal rights). For fresh and frozen goods refrigerator trucks or reefer (container)s are used.

In Australia road trains replace rail transport for goods on routes throughout the center of the country. B-doubles and semi-trailers are used in urban areas because of their smaller size. Low-loader or flat-bed trailers are used to haul containers, see containerization, in intermodal transport.

Modern roads

The Makran Coastal Highway was an ancient road within Pakistan. Now it's a major road leading to the city of Gwadar

Today roadways are principally asphalt or concrete. Both are based on McAdam's concept of stone aggregate in a binder, asphalt cement or Portland cement respectively. Asphalt is known as a flexible pavement, one which slowly will "flow" under the pounding of traffic. Concrete is a rigid pavement, which can take heavier loads but is more expensive and requires more carefully prepared subbase. So, generally, major roads are concrete and local roads are asphalt. Often concrete roads are covered with a thin layer of asphalt to create a wearing surface.

Modern pavements are designed for heavier vehicle loads and faster speeds, requiring thicker slabs and deeper subbase. Subbase is the layer or successive layers of stone, gravel and sand supporting the pavement. It is needed to spread out the slab load bearing on the underlying soil and to conduct away any water getting under the slabs. Water will undermine a pavement over time, so much of pavement and pavement joint design are meant to minimize the amount of water getting and staying under the slabs.

Shoulders are also an integral part of highway design. They are multipurpose; they can provide a margin of side clearance, a refuge for incapacitated vehicles, an emergency lane, and parking space. They also serve a design purpose, and that is to prevent water from percolating into the soil near the main pavement's edge. Shoulder pavement is designed to a lower standard than the pavement in the traveled way and won't hold up as well to traffic. (Which is why driving on the shoulder is generally prohibited.)

Pavement technology is still evolving, albeit in not easily noticed increments. For instance, chemical additives in the pavement mix make the pavement more weather resistant, grooving and other surface treatments improve resistance to skidding and hydroplaning, and joint seals which were once tar are now made of low maintenance neoprene.

Traffic control

Nearly all roadways are built with devices meant to control traffic. Most notable to the motorist are those meant to communicate directly with the driver. Broadly, these fall into three categories: signs, signals or pavement markings. They help the driver navigate; they assign the right-of-way at intersections; they indicate laws such as speed limits and parking regulations; they advise of potential hazards; they indicate passing and no passing zones; and otherwise deliver information and to assure traffic is orderly and safe.

200 years ago these devices were signs, nearly all informal. In the late 19th century signals began to appear in the biggest cities at a few highly congested intersections. They were manually operated, and consisted of semaphores, flags or paddles, or in some cases colored electric lights, all modeled on railroad signals. In the 20th century signals were automated, at first with electromechanical devices and later with computers. Signals can be quite sophisticated: with vehicle sensors embedded in the pavement, the signal can control and choreograph the turning movements of heavy traffic in the most complex of intersections. In the 1920s traffic engineers learned how to coordinate signals along a thoroughfare to increase its speeds and volumes. In the 1980s, with computers, similar coordination of whole networks became possible.

In the 1920s pavement markings were introduced. Initially they were used to indicate the road's centerline. Soon after they were coded with information to aid motorists in passing safely. Later, with multi-lane roads they were used to define lanes. Other uses, such as indicating permitted turning movements and pedestrian crossings soon followed.

In the 20th century traffic control devices were standardized. Before then every locality decided on what its devices would look like and where they would be applied. This could be confusing, especially to traffic from outside the locality. In the United States standardization was first taken at the state level, and late in the century at the federal level. Each country has a Manual of Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) and there are efforts to blend them into a worldwide standard.

Besides signals, signs, and markings, other forms of traffic control are designed and built into the roadway. For instance, curbs and rumble strips can be used to keep traffic in a given lane and median barriers can prevent left turns and even U-turns.

Toll roads

Early toll roads were usually built by private companies under a government franchise. They typically paralleled or replaced routes already with some volume of commerce, hoping the improved road would divert enough traffic to make the enterprise profitable. Plank roads were particularly attractive as they greatly reduced rolling resistance and mitigated the problem of getting mired in mud. Another improvement, better grading to lessen the steepness of the worst stretches, allowed draft animals to haul heavier loads.

A toll road in the United States is often called a turnpike. The term turnpike probably originated from the gate, often a simple pike, which blocked passage until the fare was paid at a toll house (or toll booth in current terminology). When the toll was paid the pike, which was mounted on a swivel, was turned to allow the vehicle to pass. Tolls were usually based on the type of cargo being transported, not the type of vehicle. The practice of selecting routes so as to avoid tolls is called shunpiking. This may be simply to avoid the expense, as a form of economic protest (or boycott), or simply to seek a road less traveled as a bucolic interlude.

Companies were formed to build, improve, and maintain a particular section of roadway, and tolls were collected from users to finance the enterprise. The enterprise was usually named to indicate the locale of its roadway, often including the name of one of both of the termini. The word turnpike came into common use in the names of these roadways and companies, and is essentially used interchangeably with toll road in current terminology.

In the United States, toll roads began with the Lancaster Turnpike in the 1790s, within Pennsylvania, connecting Philadelphia and Lancaster.

In New York State, the Great Western Turnpike was started in Albany in 1799 and eventually extended, by several alternate routes, to near what is now Syracuse, New York.

Toll roads peaked in the mid 19th century, and by the turn of the twentieth century most toll roads were taken over by state highway departments. The demise of this early toll road era was due to the rise of canals and railroads, which were more efficient (and thus cheaper) in moving freight over long distances. Roads wouldn't again be competitive with rails and barges until the first half of the 20th century when the internal combustion engine replaces draft animals as the source of motive power.

With the development, mass production, and popular embrace of the automobile, faster and higher capacity roads were needed. In the 1920s limited access highways appeared. Their main characteristics were dual roadways with access points limited to (but not always) grade-separated interchanges. Their dual roadways allowed high volumes of traffic, the need for no or few traffic lights along with relatively gentle grades and curves allowed higher speeds.

The first limited access highways were Parkways, so called because of their often park-like landscaping and, in the metropolitan New York City area, they connected the region's system of parks. When the German Autobahns built in the 1930s introduced higher design standards and speeds, road planners and road-builders in the United States started developing and building toll roads to similar high standards. The Pennsylvania Turnpike, which largely followed the path of a partially built railroad, was the first, opening in 1940.

After 1940 with the Pennsylvania Turnpike, toll roads saw a resurgence, this time to fund limited access highways. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, after World War II interrupted the evolution of the highway, the US resumed building toll roads. They were to still higher standards and one road, the New York State Thruway, had standards that became the prototype for the U.S. Interstate Highway System. Several other major toll-roads which connected with the Pennsylvania Turnpike were established before the creation of the Interstate Highway System. These were the Indiana Toll Road, Ohio Turnpike, and New Jersey Turnpike

Stess and Pressure

These days a lot of people feel as though they're being asked to do the impossible. Because they're good at what they do, employees are expected to do more, fix problems, handle crises, and in general, cope with all variety of situations with a level head.

Managers are expected to deal not only with their own pressure, but also with the pressure of the people they manage. There are some people who literally feel like the meat in a sandwich because they are being squeezed from above and below. And when people themselves feel pressurised, they often put additional pressure on their colleagues: a kind of domino theory of coping with stress.

Now, the one and only truism about stress, is that it's different for everyone: what causes one person to feel pressured won't be true for someone else. In other words, one person's stress is another's excitement.

Equally, it is not stress itself that is the problem, but the way in which people react to the causes of stress. Unexpected things happen to us, extra demands are made, time runs out, deadlines get passed - this is the stuff of our workaday and personal lives over which we may appear to have little control. How we deal with the seemingly 'uncontrollable' is the key to good stress management.

Most people need a certain amount of pressure to motivate and challenge them, particularly in the workplace. The reasons many of us enjoy working isn't simply to bring home a pay cheque; we want job satisfaction, opportunities to stretch ourselves, learn new skills and develop working relationships with colleagues.

The kind of pressure that keeps us on our toes and gets us to use our capabilities more fully is healthy and desirable. Without it, life would be incredibly routine and dull. But when the pressure becomes unmanageable, routine and dull begins to look very attractive. We need pressure, but too much will make us unproductive and inefficient.

So, it's important to know just what gets to us: any effective work on pressure will include what's known as a 'stress audit'. Here people define for themselves the difference between challenging stress and harmful stress and what happens to them under both kinds of pressure.

Here's an exercise to try out:

Imagine your life is a big pot sitting on a stove over a medium flame: all the contents are bubbling and simmering along nicely. What's in your pot? What can you define that gives you satisfaction; what enhances and supports your work and personal life? What do you know you cope with well: what's a comfortable amount of stress for you?

Also imagine that the flame under the pot is the energy you need to exert to keep everything moving along smoothly.

It's important to know the kinds of pressure that you can cope with, because, surprisingly, most of us cope - and cope well -with a lot more stress than we imagine.

Now, what about the pressure you don't cope with so well? This time imagine your pot beginning to boil over. It can boil over for two reasons: one is that too much gets put in the pot and there's no more room; and, two, the flame suddenly gets higher and everything heats up faster than the pot can handle.

What happens in your life that over-fills your pot? What extra things get added to your everyday life that you find you can't cope with quite as well? Alternatively, what things in your life are apt to 'heat up' on occasion and cause an over-spill? And how does this stress manifest itself? Do you get depressed, fall ill, get short tempered, feel youre stretched to breaking point? What exactly happens to you?

Here's an example to demonstrate what we mean

The day starts off well - you've got your time organised and you know what you have to accomplish by the end of it. You have a lot to do, but it's the kind of pressure you enjoy so you feel in control of your time. By 10am, however, three people have descended upon you insisting that each of their projects has priority and you've got to drop everything and give your time to them.

Suddenly your pot is too full. Your day now looks a mess, your time has been hijacked and you may start to feel overwhelmed by additional pressure.

Let's use the same scenario, except this time, instead of people descending upon you, your boss comes along and criticises your output for the past week and tells you he expects more from you.

Suddenly the heat just went up. Now you may feel deflated by the high expectations pressing in on you.

If we stick with the simmering pan analogy for a moment, when a pot boils over, first it makes a mess and then it puts out the flame. The energy you were using to keep everything on an even keel is now used up - there's nothing left. The pot may have stopped boiling over, but now nothing is cooking.

Pressure can sometimes get so on top of you that you grind to a dead halt and function at a low level of effectiveness, if at all.

This is the point where very little, or nothing, seems to go right. Disasters pile up, personality difficulties seem to magnify, communication with those around you disintegrates. The end results can vary from irritability, insomnia, substance abuse, nervous breakdowns; and any number of other physical, emotional and mental difficulties in between.

Too much pressure can also feel 'normal'. People get so used to working under enormous pressure that they manage to ignore the many symptoms that manifest themselves. They often don't do anything about it until they fall over and are forced to look at the situation.

People often confuse lack of ability with being under too much stress. By this we mean that if someone is simply not up to the job, or requires additional skills and support to do a good job, they may feel pressurised and blame it on too much stress. Of course, life can feel very stressful under these circumstances, but the reality is that it is the lack of ability that's at the root of the problem. Anyone who has acquired a new, relatively difficult skill will know what we are talking about: 'before', the work that required the skill was overwhelming and incomprehensible; 'after', it all seems like a piece of cake.

As we said at the beginning, one person's stress could be another's excitement. Let's go back to our scenario: you could be someone who thrives on people rushing up to your desk and demanding things of you - you love juggling lots of projects, people and deadlines.

You might be someone to whom criticism from the boss is water off a duck's back: you take it as helpful feedback and are happy to work out a strategy for improving things.

On the other hand, you, who cope so well with people, might be someone who goes into a complete panic when the printer conks out. That might be when you feel completely out of control, and that's what will tip you over the edge.

Which means that there can never be one way of effectively dealing with pressure, since no two people are affected by stresses in the same way. And, of course, depending upon what else is going on in your life, what feels manageable one day, may feel overwhelming the next.

Managing Pressure

Fortunately, there are things you can do that help you manage the pressure without getting the sack or alienating your colleagues, family and friends. They also dont require you to quit your job and live in silent retreat on a remote island (a recurrent fantasy of those who feel under the cosh most of the time!).

Now, let's say you know the causes of unmanageable stress and can see them coming at you from afar, but it actually feels as though there's nothing you can do about it. You may even cry in despair, "But I'm already doing everything I can! What more can I do?"

What do you do when you think you are doing all that you can? Doing more won't work: that just creates more pressure and stress and accelerates the point of total burn out. Doing less won't work either: the time created by doing less simply gives you more time to worry about the things you arent doing! There's only one option left, and that's to do things differently.

"What do you mean, do things differently? I've tried everything I can think of and nothing works!"

Well, we look at the things you haven't thought of, because when people are in the middle of overwhelm they are usually unable to see what else they could do.

Do a 'Stress Audit'

By identifying what stresses overwhelm you, what happens to you and where break point (or points) is, you look at prevention as well as cure.

Choose a different way to behave

When you're watching your pot spew boiling liquid all over everything (including yourself), it's really hard to see just what you could do differently. The situation may feel so fraught that it's impossible to see much of anything clearly and you'll do what you've always done in a crisis. That's because, when under pressure, the human mind and body is programmed to revert to type.

Now, many people assume that if they change their behaviour, they'll create more stress than they have already. Not so. Yes, if you try to change everything and become a different person, you'll feel more stressed. Trying to make big changes usually results in failure and disappointment. Small, easy-to-do changes, and creating lots of small wins are what's wanted: they'll bolster your confidence so you'll want to practise even more.

Understand the link between Communication and Stress

Communication log-jams, unresolved conflict, avoidance of uncomfortable situations and pretending things are all right when they aren't, will cause stress. Therefore, anything that improves communication or clears the air will reduce pressure. Given that we have to communicate at work all the time, there are always opportunities to improve our interpersonal skills.

Set Appropriate Boundaries

When people do descend on your desk, it's perfectly acceptable to tell each person how willing you are to help, but that you can't get to their work till tomorrow (or three o'clock or next week, etc.). Every time they insist it has to be done today, you show lots of empathy and understanding and willingness, but you still won't be able to get to their work till tomorrow.

Boundaries are one of the key ways to make clear to others just how far you're willing to go and what your limits are.

Practise the Art of Saying "No"

Along with boundaries, it's important to look at whether you are an easy 'mark', where people will come to you for that little extra because you won't refuse. There are an infinite number of ways to say 'No' without ever having to use the word. For instance, pre-empting a raid on your time is a great ploy: "I know what you're going to ask me and you've caught me at the worst time to be of help to anyone."

Lower your Standards

What? Lower my standards? That doesn't feel like good advice. However, by setting 'perfectionistic' standards that are so high they are impossible to reach, many people create unnecessary pressure for themselves. By lowering your standards, you can create far more 'wins' for yourself, and 'wins' make us all feel great.

Ask for Support

Along with too high standards, many people are also reluctant to ask for support: they don't want to appear weak and vulnerable. Keeping problems and difficulties to yourself and trying to cope on your own is foolish. Asking for support is not a sign of weakness - it is actually a sign of intelligence. It gets you out of a hole and it gives other people an opportunity to help out.

Stop

Not stop in terms of collapse; but stop for a few minutes and get yourself out of the situation: take a loo break, make a cup of tea, walk around the block, phone a friend. When we can't see the woods for the trees, it's time to step out and take a break. It won't solve the whole problem, but it will give you some much-needed breathing space.

Find the Humour

Believe it or not, most situations do have their humorous side. Being able to see it may be difficult, but taking things too seriously is guaranteed to compound already existing stress.

Give yourself a Treat

Look for opportunities to reward yourself for such milestones as: it's Wednesday, the Tube was on time, the Tube was late, it's raining for the sixth day in a row, the sun just came out, you found a parking space and so on. Too often we feel as though we only deserve 'rewards' when we've done something over and above. Treats make you feel good; feeling good helps lower stress.

These are just a few of the ways to prevent or alleviate pressure. It's unlikely that any of us can get rid of or avoid all harmful stress. But there are certainly enough coping mechanisms at our disposal to make life a whole lot easier and a happier experience.

What is Load Shedding?

Summer has arrived and soon higher electric bills will be arriving. As I'm sure you know, power companies charge a premium when a certain demand threshold is reached. Load shedding during high electrical demand periods is a good way to lower electrical consumption and avoid paying premium prices for exceeding peak demand limits. Metering or monitoring load for the building will tell you when that threshold is nearing.

Load shedding will probably not work if the demand follows a bell curve during the day, where the threshold is exceeded for a good portion of the day. In this case, the building needs to find ways of increasing energy efficiency, either by purchasing more efficient equipment, eliminating waste, etc. However, if there is a peak in the demand curve that is exceeded around the same time everyday, load shedding could help. The question is, what can you afford to shut down without making people uncomfortable and angry?

Unfortunately, some comfort will be sacrificed to achieve load shedding. Some ideas for load shedding without sacrificing too much comfort are:

• Reduce VFD speeds
• Turn off outside air fans for periods of time
• Reduce static pressure setpoints

First of all, the overall load for the building has to be monitored. The most preferable meters to use with a CBAS system are the Hawkeye 8035 and 8036 models, made by Veris. These meters communicate by Modbus protocol and all programming is included with the CBAS 2003 software. To use these meters, you first create a Modbus RTU channel on the Host or Secondary channel of an 8X, 16X, 32X, or 64X. These meters can send a variety of information to CBAS, including KWH Consumption, KWH Demand, Voltage, Average Current, and many others.

To do this, in Hardware View:

• Locate the controller that will be acting as the Modbus host.
• Click on the controller and click Channels.
• Click on "Add a Channel" next to RS485 Host or RS485 Secondary.
• Give the channel a descriptive name and choose Modbus RTU over TCP/IP for the configuration.
• Click Add Channel Now.

To add the controllers to the channel:

• Right-click twice and locate the Modbus channel you just created.
• Click on the channel, click Controllers, and locate the line that has the address that you want to give the Hawkeye meter.
• Click Add a Modbus Controller on that line and give the controller a descriptive name. Choose the Hawkeye controller from the list under "Select Configuration".
• Click Add Controller Now and you are finished.

To add points to the Hawkeye:

• Click on the controller and click Points. You will see a long list of points that say Add A Point to the right.

Add the points you want to use by clicking on Add a Point and giving each point a descriptive name. If you have more than one Hawkeye meter, you will want to include the name of the controller in the point's name.

Once you have the "demand" point in CBAS, you can write logic that executes load shedding when the threshold is nearing. Make this logic level 3, so it will override the logic that is already controlling the VFDs, fans, setpoints, etc. There are many ways of setting up the logic. When demand reaches a certain level below the power company's threshold, logic could lower the VFD speeds first. If the demand continues to rise, outside air fans could shut down and dampers close. If the demand continues to rise, static pressure setpoints could be lowered.

Here's some more ideas for load shedding from the web:

• Establish higher temperature set points in common areas and set tenant zones to 74° F during peak hours.
• Curtail hot water circulating pumps when not needed.
• Curtail Chillers & related pumps when not needed.
• Curtail building supply and return fans when not needed.
• Curtail heat pumps when not needed.
• Curtail fan powered VAV boxes.
• Curtail Parking garage exhaust or set up a reduced duty cycle for garage fans.
• Adjust chiller OSA interlock temperatures to delay or eliminate start up were possible. Disable start during peak demand periods.
• Reduce fan static pressure were possible.
• Fine-tune and calibrate equipment to reduce "hunting." Stable operating equipment promotes the most energy efficient operation.
• Start chillers and VAV heaters earlier in the morning so you can reduce the call for energy during the higher demand hours.
• Use Optimal Start schedules to avoid "Playing catch-up" on hot mornings